Two stressors are far deadlier than one

Sih, Andrew; Bell, Alison M.; Kerby, Jacob L.

doi:10.1016/j.tree.2004.02.010

Cited by 168 publications

(110 citation statements)

References 17 publications

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“…Predator-induced plastic responses have been shown to affect a wide range of prey phenotypes, ranging from morphological (Relyea 2001), behavioral (Sih et al 2004), physiological (Pangle et al 2007) and prey life history traits (McCauley et al 2011). In general, these phenotypic responses are involved in anti-predator defense, with key ecological consequences from individuals to ecosystems , Hawlena and Schmitz 2010, Guariento and Esteves 2013.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Conspecific density affects predator‐induced prey phenotypic plasticity

et al. 2015

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Abstract. The risk-assessment hypothesis (R-AH) states that prey must consider conspecific density and not simply the concentration of predation cues to evaluate actual predation risk. However, little is known about whether the R-AH might serve to predict predator-inducible plastic responses involving different prey phenotypes. We approached this question through an experiment in outdoor mesocosms, manipulating predation risk (with caged predators) and prey conspecific density to test the importance of R-AH for the expression of predator-induced morphological and behavioral phenotypes. We found behavioral (swimming activity) and morphological (tail width and tail muscle depth) responses of bullfrog tadpoles (Lithobates catesbeianus) to be affected by chemical predation cues. However, only the morphological phenotype responded to the predation-risk:conspecific-density interaction. The width of the tail and the muscle depth of tadpoles were significantly greater when individuals were exposed to predators. However, this effect was not significant in treatments with high prey density in an experimental setup that minimized intraspecific competition. We interpret the differences found among the responses of the phenotypes in terms of the effects of three factors: the potential costs related to each phenotype expression, how these phenotypes are affected by environmental conditions and the immediate response of the phenotypes to actual and perceived prey risk. Our results shed light on the fact that prey individuals use information about population density to estimate actual predation risk from chemical cues. However, different traits are differentially affected, suggesting that trade-off mechanisms associated with the costs of the expression in terms of anti-predator defenses may interfere with the predictions of R-AH for multiple prey phenotypes.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Conspecific density affects predator‐induced prey phenotypic plasticity

et al. 2015

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“…In particular, quantification of interactions among multiple stressors comprises one of the most pressing problems in ecology and conservation , Rhind 2009). The coupling of multiple stressors can produce complex and unforeseen interactive effects on ecosystems (Heugens et al 2002, Sih et al 2004. Moreover, the nature of such interactions may themselves change after the introduction of additional stressors (Crain et al 2008).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Interactions among temporal patterns determine the effects of multiple stressors

Molinos

Donohue

2010

Ecological Applications

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Abstract. Recent research has revealed that one of the most important characteristics of both natural and anthropogenic disturbances is their temporal heterogeneity. However, little is known about the relative importance of interactions among temporal patterns of multiple stressors. We established a fully factorial field experiment to test whether interactions among temporal patterns of two globally important anthropogenic disturbances of aquatic ecosystems (increased sediment loading and nutrient enrichment) determined the responses of stream benthic assemblages. Each disturbance treatment comprised three distinct regimes: regular and temporally variable pulses and an undisturbed control. The overall frequency, intensity and extent of disturbance was, however, equal across all disturbed treatments. We found that interactions among temporal disturbance regimes determined the effects of the compounded sediment and nutrient perturbations on algal biomass and the diversity, taxonomic and trophic composition of benthic assemblages. Moreover, our results also show that the temporal synchronization of multiple stressors does not necessarily maximize the impact of compounded perturbations. This comprises the first experimental evidence that interactions among the temporal patterns of disturbances drive the responses of ecosystems to multiple stressors. Knowledge of the temporal pattern of disturbances is therefore essential for the reliable prediction of impacts from, and effective management of, compounded perturbations.

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“…Combinations of environmental stressors have been shown to have interactive effects on the health of individuals in many taxa (4), including fish (5,6), amphibians (7,8), and reptiles (9,10), with indications of interactive effects at the population level for some invertebrates (11,12). It is also recognized that small, isolated, and inbred wildlife populations are potentially more vulnerable to environmental change because of their lower adaptive capabilities (13,14).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Climate change and pollution speed declines in zebrafish populations

Brown

Owen

Peters

et al. 2015

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

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Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are potent environmental contaminants, and their effects on wildlife populations could be exacerbated by climate change, especially in species with environmental sex determination. Endangered species may be particularly at risk because inbreeding depression and stochastic fluctuations in male and female numbers are often observed in the small populations that typify these taxa. Here, we assessed the interactive effects of water temperature and EDC exposure on sexual development and population viability of inbred and outbred zebrafish (Danio rerio). Water temperatures adopted were 28°C (current ambient mean spawning temperature) and 33°C (projected for the year 2100). The EDC selected was clotrimazole (at 2 μg/L and 10 μg/L), a widely used antifungal chemical that inhibits a key steroidogenic enzyme [cytochrome P450(CYP19) aromatase] required for estrogen synthesis in vertebrates. Elevated water temperature and clotrimazole exposure independently induced maleskewed sex ratios, and the effects of clotrimazole were greater at the higher temperature. Male sex ratio skews also occurred for the lower clotrimazole exposure concentration at the higher water temperature in inbred fish but not in outbred fish. Population viability analysis showed that population growth rates declined sharply in response to male skews and declines for inbred populations occurred at lower male skews than for outbred populations. These results indicate that elevated temperature associated with climate change can amplify the effects of EDCs and these effects are likely to be most acute in small, inbred populations exhibiting environmental sex determination and/or differentiation.

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Two stressors are far deadlier than one

Cited by 168 publications

References 17 publications

Conspecific density affects predator‐induced prey phenotypic plasticity

Conspecific density affects predator‐induced prey phenotypic plasticity

Interactions among temporal patterns determine the effects of multiple stressors

Climate change and pollution speed declines in zebrafish populations

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