Ultralow platinum loading proton exchange membrane fuel cells: Performance losses and solutions

Banham, Dustin; Zou, Jialin; Mukerjee, Sanjeev; Liu, Zihan; Yang, Dong; Zhang, Yi; Peng, Ye

doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229515

Cited by 66 publications

(59 citation statements)

References 147 publications

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“…Wittstock et al [162] determined that the figure for PEMFC EVs is 11.2 g/vehicle but noted that some assessments indicate loadings as high as 42 g/vehicle. A value of 33.76 g is obtained using the figures of Simons and Bauer (225 cm 2 electrode area and 0.15 g/cm 2 Pt) [172] which is similar to values reported by Banham et al [75]. There is an ongoing drive to reduce PGM loadings and a number of different methods for catalyst preparation with lower Pt loadings being are either reviewed or discussed in the literature [75,159,[173][174][175][176].…”

Section: Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (Fcevs)supporting

confidence: 76%

“…As would be expected, performance and cost are challenging issues in the auto sector, so it is desirable to maximise the mileage but keep the costs as low as possible by having lower metal content. Currently Pt loadings in the fuel cell stacks have been reported to be around 25 to 35 g/vehicle (0.25 to 0.35 g/kW) [75]. However, while the stability of Pt is desirable, the activity of Pt catalysts is low and not sufficient to achieve the required performance.…”

Section: Electronics and Electricalmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Second, the quantity of PGMs used in different types of EVs can vary by two orders of magnitude depending on EV types (see Section 4.3.2). One big source of variation will be the loading of PGM containing electrode catalysts in FCEVs [75,174].…”

Section: Future Pgm Demand For Evsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The high demand scenario includes 35 g/v for cars and vans and 25 g/v for trucks and buses, with a total annual demand in 2030 of 66 tonnes under the IEA scenarios. The figures of 35 g/v and 25 g/v were taken from Banham et al [75] and represent the upper end of loadings for current technology. Values higher than this have been reported but are not considered feasible from a commercial perspective [162,198].…”

Section: Future Pgm Demand For Evsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Platinum Group Metals: A Review of Resources, Production and Usage with a Focus on Catalysts

et al. 2021

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The major applications of PGMs are as catalysts in automotive industry, petroleum refining, environmental (gas remediation), industrial chemical production (e.g., ammonia production, fine chemicals), electronics, and medical fields. As the next generation energy technologies for hydrogen production, such as electrolysers and fuel cells for stationary and transport applications, become mature, the demand for PGMs is expected to further increase. Reserves and annual production of Ru, Rh, Pd, Ir, and Pt have been determined and reported. Based on currently available resources, there is around 200 years lifetime based on current demand for all PGMs, apart from Pd, which may be closer to 100 years. Annual primary production of 190 t/a for Pt and 217 t/a for Pd, in combination with recycling of 65.4 t/a for Pt and 97.2 t/a for Pd, satisfies current demand. By far, the largest demand for PGMs is for all forms of catalysis, with the largest demand in auto catalysis. In fact, the biggest driver of demand and price for Pt, Pd, and Rh, in particular, is auto emission regulation, which has driven auto-catalyst design. Recovery of PGMs through recycling is generally good, but some catalytic processes, particularly auto-catalysis, result in significant dissipation. In the US, about 70% of the recycling stream from the end-of-life vehicles is a significant source of global secondary PGMs recovered from spent auto-catalyst. The significant use of PGMs in the large global auto industry is likely to continue, but the long-term transition towards electric vehicles will alter demand profiles.

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Section: Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (Fcevs)supporting

confidence: 76%

Section: Electronics and Electricalmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Future Pgm Demand For Evsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Future Pgm Demand For Evsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Platinum Group Metals: A Review of Resources, Production and Usage with a Focus on Catalysts

et al. 2021

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“…The progress in this subject is greatly hindered by the high cost and scarcity of the state-of-the-art platinum-based materials which are regarded as the most effective cathode catalysts. Therefore, most of the current research studies have been devoted to the optimization of active centers and maximization of their utilization, which should allow the lowering of the cathode Pt loadings without loss of performance and durability [5][6][7][8]. Unfortunately, the problem of electrochemical stability and the danger of generation of higher quantities of the undesirable hydrogen peroxide intermediate may become even more serious in the case of systems utilizing lower amounts of the Pt catalyst [9].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Enhancement of Activity and Development of Low Pt Content Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Acid Media

et al. 2021

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Platinum is a main catalyst for the electroreduction of oxygen, a reaction of primary importance to the technology of low-temperature fuel cells. Due to the high cost of platinum, there is a need to significantly lower its loadings at interfaces. However, then O2-reduction often proceeds at a less positive potential, and produces higher amounts of undesirable H2O2-intermediate. Hybrid supports, which utilize metal oxides (e.g., CeO2, WO3, Ta2O5, Nb2O5, and ZrO2), stabilize Pt and carbon nanostructures and diminish their corrosion while exhibiting high activity toward the four-electron (most efficient) reduction in oxygen. Porosity of carbon supports facilitates dispersion and stability of Pt nanoparticles. Alternatively, the Pt-based bi- and multi-metallic catalysts, including PtM alloys or M-core/Pt-shell nanostructures, where M stands for certain transition metals (e.g., Au, Co, Cu, Ni, and Fe), can be considered. The catalytic efficiency depends on geometric (decrease in Pt–Pt bond distances) and electronic (increase in d-electron vacancy in Pt) factors, in addition to possible metal–support interactions and interfacial structural changes affecting adsorption and activation of O2-molecules. Despite the stabilization of carbons, doping with heteroatoms, such as sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and boron results in the formation of catalytically active centers. Thus, the useful catalysts are likely to be multi-component and multi-functional.

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Noble Metal‐Based Nanocatalysts Dispersed on Functionalized and Alternative Supports for Low‐Temperature Fuel Cells and Electrolyzers

Rodríguez‐Varela,

Alonso‐Lemus,

Martínez‐Loyola

et al. 2024

Electrocatalytic Materials for Renewable Energy

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Ultralow platinum loading proton exchange membrane fuel cells: Performance losses and solutions

Cited by 66 publications

References 147 publications

Platinum Group Metals: A Review of Resources, Production and Usage with a Focus on Catalysts

Platinum Group Metals: A Review of Resources, Production and Usage with a Focus on Catalysts

Enhancement of Activity and Development of Low Pt Content Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Acid Media

Noble Metal‐Based Nanocatalysts Dispersed on Functionalized and Alternative Supports for Low‐Temperature Fuel Cells and Electrolyzers

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