Ultraprocessed food consumption is associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in participants with type 2 diabetes independent of diet quality: a prospective observational cohort study

Ultra-processed food consumption and risk of cardiovascular events: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis

“…We excluded one article reported UPF consumption based on the daily frequency, as this consumption unit of UPF was difficult to include in present meta-analysis with other studies. 28 Finally, 20 studies (22 cohorts) were included in meta-analysis 19 , 20 , 21 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 ( Fig. 1 ).…”

“…Duration of follow-up for CVEs ranged from 5.2 to 27.0 years, with a median follow-up of 12.2 years. Eight cohorts were conducted in United States, 32 , 33 , 34 , 36 , 39 , 40 , 45 four in Italy, 19 , 31 , 37 , 42 and three in United Kingdom, 38 , 41 , 45 one in France, 29 one in Spain, 30 one in Canada, 35 one in Korea, 21 one in Brazil, 43 one in Iranian, 44 and one contained participants from mixed countries (North and South America, Europe, Africa, Middle East, and Asia). 20 Six cohorts assessed UPF consumption with the 24 h dietary recall 29 , 34 , 35 , 38 , 41 , 45 and the rest with food frequency questionnaires.…”

“…Two study modeled UPF consumption as a continuous variable, 36 , 43 and the remaining studies modeled UPF consumption categorically. Ten studies estimating by daily weight proportion of UPF consumption, 19 , 21 , 29 , 31 , 37 , 39 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 45 five by daily servings, 20 , 30 , 32 , 36 , 40 and four by daily energy proportion. 34 , 35 , 38 , 44 One study had data both by daily weight proportion and daily servings, and we use it separately in the analysis of different units.…”

Ultra-Processed Foods: A Narrative Review of the Impact on the Human Gut Microbiome and Variations in Classification Methods

“…Of the studies in Table 3 , eight used FFQs [ 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 ], seven used 24 h dietary recalls [ 77 , 79 , 80 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 ], and two used a combination of methods (FFQs and food records) [ 76 , 78 ] to collect food information. Each of these methods have been validated for use in dietary research, but limitations exist that make food processing classification difficult in some cases.…”

“…Bonaccio, 2023 [81] 188-item FFQ Specifically designed software linked to Italian Food Tables Two researchers independently coded each food into one of four categories. Conservative classification was used for challenging items.…”