“Under the Skin” and into the Gut: Social Epidemiology of the Microbiome

Abstract

Purpose of the ReviewAs the science of the microbiome advances, social epidemiologists can contribute to understanding how the broader social environment shapes the microbiome over the life course. This review summarizes current research and describes potential mechanisms of the social epidemiology of the microbiome.Recent FindingsMost existing literature linking the social environment and the microbiome comes from animal models, focused on the impact of social interactions and psychosocial stress. Suggestive evidence of the importance of early life exposures, health behaviors, and the built environment also point to the importance of the social environment for the microbiome in humans.SummarySocial epidemiology as a field is well poised to contribute expertise in theory and measurement of the broader social environment to this new area, and to consider both the upstream and downstream mechanisms by which this environment gets “under the skin” and “into the gut.” As population-level microbiome data becomes increasingly available, we encourage investigation of the multi-level determinants of the microbiome and how the microbiome may link the social environment and health.

The gut microbiome alterations in allergic and inflammatory skin diseases – an update

“…Nevertheless, also adult individuals are prone to complications caused by dysbiosis. Factors involved in bacterial imbalance include psychosocial stress, social relationships, environmental factors, health behaviours, nutrition, tobacco and alcohol intake, prescription drug use and socio‐economic status . A significant issue is also the extensive use of probiotics and antibiotics.…”

“…Factors involved in bacterial imbalance include psychosocial stress, social relationships, environmental factors, health behaviours, nutrition, tobacco and alcohol intake, prescription drug use and socio-economic status. 9 A significant issue is also the extensive use of probiotics and antibiotics. Probiotics' impact on intestinal flora and gutassociated lymphoid tissue (GALT) is caused by both whole bacteria as well as their soluble factors, which act through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) belonging to Toll-like receptor family on the surface of enterocytes, what results in TGF-b and interleukin 8 production and immune response modulation.…”

Sociodemographic patterning in the oral microbiome of a diverse sample of New Yorkers

“…16 17 This combination of findings has led researchers to call for investigation into the role of the 18 microbiome in health disparities (23) but little empirical work has yet been done in this area. A 19 number of mechanisms potentially link social inequality to the microbiome (24). Mechanisms 20 linking the social environment to microbe exposure have been discussed in relation to common 21 pathogens such as CMV and EBV; these may include household crowding, use of public 22 transportation, and differences in susceptibility due to e.g.…”

“…breastfeeding (antibodies) and poor 23 sleep (25,26), mechanisms which may apply to commensal microbes as well. Changes in 24 immune function related to psychosocial stress (27), nutrition (28), smoking (29), or other 25 environmental exposures can alter host interactions with microbes. Differences in microbiome 26 characteristics may also persist via mother-to-child transmission, as infant microbiomes are 27 seeded from the birth canal and/or breastfeeding (30,31).…”

“…Nearly all participants (95%) provided an oral mouthwash specimen. 22 This study was approved by the institutional review boards of the City University of New York 23 and the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, and all participants gave 24 informed consent. Participants providing mouthwash specimens in the current sub-study also 25 consented to use these specimens in future studies.…”