Feedback is essential in any kind of learning. This study focused on feedback in online learning and conceptualized feedback as a social interaction process. Online learning rests on social interaction, which is affected by feelings of social presence. Therefore, we investigated received and perceived online feedback, and the coherence between them. In addition, we studied the influence of social presence on feedback processes. Sixteen Dutch student teachers, who followed a 1 year customized postgraduate teacher education course, engaged in an online peer coaching program using Skype. Data could be collected from 8 different participants and 966 feedback utterances were analysed. In order to determine the quality of this received feedback, an observational instrument was used. In addition, questionnaires were filled in that addressed student teachers' feedback perceptions and feelings of social presence. Findings showed that participants with higher feedback perceptions received more effective observed feedback than participants with lower perceptions. Feelings of social presence affected perceived and observed feedback, however the social presence items need further validation. This study has practical implications for providing effective online feedback as well as providing a more holistic view on the processes of feedback among teachers.
Overview of our previous workThe study described in this article is the last in a series undertaken as part of a research project. The research project aimed to provide more insights into the feedback processes among teachers and consisted of a literature review and several empirical studies. The literature review's (Thurlings, Vermeulen, Bastiaens & Stijnen, 2013) aim was to update Scheeler, Ruhl and McAfee's (2004) findings. Scheeler et al. (2004) were the first, to our knowledge, who reviewed literature on feedback to teachers. They concluded that:Despite the obvious limitations, the literature clearly supports three general conclusions that should be adopted into practice: (a) feedback is better than no feedback, (b) immediate feedback is better than delayed feedback, and (c) feedback that is immediate, specific, positive, and corrective holds the most promise for bringing about lasting change in teaching behaviour. (p. 68) Moreover, they made a plea for future research on the subject of feedback among teachers, which indeed was followed by many researchers. In our literature review, we showed that feedback for teachers should be provided in (peer) coaching settings. In addition, feedback itself should be "task and/or goal-directed, focused on the learning process, specific, in time and frequent, positive, unbiased, non judging, constructive, hold elaborations and/or justifications, and encouraging dialogue" (Thurlings et al., 2013, p. 12).