Unraveling the Composition of Rembrandt's Impasto through the Identification of Unusual Plumbonacrite by Multimodal X‐ray Diffraction Analysis

Abstract

Rembrandt (1606–1669) is renowned for his impasto technique, involving his use of lead white paint with outstanding rheological properties. This paint was obtained by combining lead white pigment (a mixture of cerussite PbCO3 and hydrocerussite Pb3(CO3)2(OH)2) with an organic binding medium, but the exact formulation used by Rembrandt remains a mystery. A powerful combination of high‐angle and high‐lateral resolution x‐ray diffraction was used to investigate several microscopic paint samples from four Rembrandt masterpieces. A rare lead compound, plumbonacrite (Pb5(CO3)3O(OH)2), was detected in areas of impasto. This can be considered a fingerprint of Rembrandt's recipe and is evidence of the use of an alkaline binding medium, which sheds a new light on Rembrandt's pictorial technique.

On metal and ‘spoiled’ wine: analysing psimythion (synthetic cerussite) pellets (5th–3rd centuries BCE) and hypothesising gas-metal reactions over a fermenting liquid within a Greek pot

“…During the depletion of lead hydroxide (through the formation of hydrocerussite) and the increase in the levels of CO 2 , cerussite is formed at the expense of hydrocerussite. We should note, however, that we cannot rule out or confirm the formation of hydrocerussite via plumbonacrite, as an intermediate phase, as observed by Gonzáles et al (2019a) during the Dutch process. Figure 6 gives an illustrative summary of the trend in gas and solid phase composition for stages 1-3 as described in Fig.…”

Pigments—Lead-based whites, reds, yellows and oranges and their alteration phases

“…In this regard, the experimental studies performed by Kotulanová et al (2009) and Vagnini et al (2020) represent a milestone, with regard to the characterisation of both pigments and the transformations that can occur to these two phases, considered individually or combined (see below). Applied studies, such as those performed by Gonzalez et al (2019a), are further fundamental in understanding how painters used lead-based white mixtures and how to analyse them. These authors, for example, demonstrated that the impasto used by Rembrandt van Rijn (The Netherlands, 1606-1669) was made of a mixture of cerussite and hydrocerussite (with very high HC: C ratio) and that plumbonacrite, which is stable only in alkaline conditions (pH > 10), may have resulted from the carbonation of the PbO drier.…”

“…drying agent) rather than an art pigment (Toniolo et al 1998). The use of litharge as a dryer has been discussed in relation to both the palette of specific painters (e.g., for Rembrandt's paintings, see Gonzalez et al 2019a) and the formation of alteration products due to saponification (see below). The preparation of a lead medium using litharge cooked with linseed oil (in 1: 3/4 ratio) is commonly referred to Antonello da Messina (1430-1479) (Maroger 1948), but it has also been handed down by later authors (Gonzalez et al 2019a).…”

X‐ray Diffraction Mapping for Cultural Heritage Science: a Review of Experimental Configurations and Applications

“…Many XRD mapping experiments (in particular those performed on paintings and manuscripts) aim at identifying the composition of the various pigments used by the artists . The pioneering application of XRD mapping was on a fragment of a Roman wall painting, displaying a portrait.…”

“…Mapping crystalline compounds at the microscale can also help to retrieve the lost techniques of Old Masters. This was recently shown in a work on Rembrandt's impasto, a key pictorial technique of the Dutch Golden Age Master that allowed him to achieve striking visual effects by adding a third dimension to his paintings . Rembrandt's impastos were based on lead white paint, but the exact recipe used to obtain a paint formulation with such specific rheological properties remained unknown.…”