“…Other studies found that aspects of instructional quality, such as perceived cognitive activation ( r = .08; Jansen et al, 2022), socioemotional support ( r = .31; Böheim, Urdan, et al, 2020), and time on task ( r = .09; Jansen et al, 2022) were related to student-guided participation (specifically hand raising) in secondary schools. In a study with primary school children, Denn et al (2019) found positive relationships between hand raising, student support ( r = .38), and classroom management ( r = .31). Furthermore, hand raising was found to be associated with key learner characteristics such as interest ( r = .17) and self-concept ( r = .25) in Mathematics classes (Böheim, Knogler, et al, 2020), perception of self-determination ( r = .17; Jansen et al, 2022), cognitive strategy use ( r = .21; Böheim, Urdan, et al, 2020), and emotion (e.g., shyness: r = −.13, see Mundelsee & Jurkowski, 2021).…”