“…In its most common embodiment, the infrared upconversion in lanthanide-doped nanoparticles is initiated by the absorption of 975 nm light by the sensitizer ion Yb 3+ , followed by energy transfer and ladder-climbing in the manifold of states in the activator ions [5,14,23,25,30], such as erbium Er 3+ , holmium (Ho 3+ ), and thulium (Tm 3+ ). In the material systems where the sensitizer and activator are different ions, the doping level of the sensitizing ion (Yb 3+ ) is high for two reasons: first, to capture the incoming radiation, and second, to increase the probability of energy transfer from the Yb 3+ ion to the activator ions.…”