Utilization of electric vehicles for frequency regulation in Danish electrical grid

Assessment of economic benefits for EV owners participating in the primary frequency regulation markets

“…Additionally, the results shown in Tables I and II are somehow comparable with the results from [19] and [22]. They may differ not only because of the considerations for the economic calculations in each approach but also because the costs associated with service unavailability, grid impact, and degradation are disregarded in those works.…”

“…Thus, a penalty cost is included in the formulation in an attempt to avoid congestion issues. Considering a maximum power consumption from the grid (𝑃 ̅ 𝑔 ) to avoid congestion [42], the total time exceeding 𝑃 ̅ 𝑔 during Π (i.e., 𝜑) is calculated using ( 20)- (22).…”

“…Furthermore, despite that, there is a notable interest in promoting V2G applications in the Nordic area [18]- [22], the capability and economic potential of individual EVs with different characteristics participating in PFR markets, especially in this area have not been thoroughly investigated. For instance, in [19] and [22], the economic value of a specific EV brand (Nissan Leaf) providing reserve in Nordic countries is quantified through a stochastic optimization model and an analytical method, but disregarding possible penalties for service unavailability and grid impact within the optimization. The authors in [23] are among the first describing the operation of a group of EVs participating in North American PFR markets and calculating the expected incomes of each EV.…”

Optimisation of a hydrogen production – storage – re-powering system participating in electricity and transportation markets. A case study for Denmark

“…1) is, on the one hand, due to the high wind power capacity and the good wind potential, and, on the other hand, because of the well-structured transmission interconnections with Germany, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden. These interconnections allow the export of electricity in the case of high RES production and low demand and vice versa [11]. However, there have been cases since 2008, where the annual balance of electricity imports-exports leaned towards the import side (e.g.…”

Centralized and Distributed Optimization for Vehicle-to-Grid Applications in Frequency Regulation

“…In addition, the response of EV charging and discharging is fast, which makes EVs ideal sources for frequency regulation. Therefore, effective frequency regulation models using EVs are highly needed [12,13]. Since the individual battery capacity of EVs is insignificant compared with conventional generators [14], aggregators can be used to coordinate and manage the participation of a large fleet of EVs [15][16][17].…”