Variability in Proactive and Reactive Cognitive Control Processes Across the Adult Lifespan

Abstract

Task-switching paradigms produce a highly consistent age-related increase in mixing cost [longer response time (RT) on repeat trials in mixed-task than single-task blocks] but a less consistent age effect on switch cost (longer RT on switch than repeat trials in mixed-task blocks). We use two approaches to examine the adult lifespan trajectory of control processes contributing to mixing cost and switch cost: latent variables derived from an evidence accumulation model of choice, and event-related potentials (ERP) that temporally differentiate proactive (cue-driven) and reactive (target-driven) control processes. Under highly practiced and prepared task conditions, aging was associated with increasing RT mixing cost but reducing RT switch cost. Both effects were largely due to the same cause: an age effect for mixed-repeat trials. In terms of latent variables, increasing age was associated with slower non-decision processes, slower rate of evidence accumulation about the target, and higher response criterion. Age effects on mixing costs were evident only on response criterion, the amount of evidence required to trigger a decision, whereas age effects on switch cost were present for all three latent variables. ERPs showed age-related increases in preparation for mixed-repeat trials, anticipatory attention, and post-target interference. Cue-locked ERPs that are linked to proactive control were associated with early emergence of age differences in response criterion. These results are consistent with age effects on strategic processes controlling decision caution. Consistent with an age-related decline in cognitive flexibility, younger adults flexibly adjusted response criterion from trial-to-trial on mixed-task blocks, whereas older adults maintained a high criterion for all trials.

Long-term habitual physical activity is associated with lower distractibility in a Stroop interference task in aging: Behavioral and ERP evidence

“…In keeping with this, larger ERP components in young compared to old participants parallel differences in behavioral performance (Friedman, 2011;Karayanidis et al, 2011;Lucci et al, 2013;West, 2004). Findings from our lab indicate that cognitive training did not only improve behavioral performance, but was also associated with larger P2 amplitudes during visual search (Wild-Wall et al, 2012), and larger N2 and P3b amplitudes during task switching Gajewski, Wild-Wall et al, 2010).…”

“…The N2 is generally delayed (Eppinger, Kray, Mecklinger, & John, 2007;Kray, Eppinger, & Mecklinger, 2005) and reduced (Friedman, 2011;Karayanidis, Whitson, Heathcote, & Michie, 2011;Lucci et al, 2013;Willemssen, Falkenstein, Schwarz, Müller, & Beste, 2011) in older relative to younger subjects. To date, only two studies have analyzed the N2 in physically active compared to low active individuals.…”

Task Switching Processes

“…The work reviewed here has defined the structural and functional organization of processes that underpin effective task switching performance. This work has informed developmental (e.g., Karayanidis, Jamadar, & Sanday, 2013;Manzi, Nessler, Czernochowski, & Friedman, 2011), aging (e.g., Karayanidis, Whitson, Heathcote, & Michie, 2011;Madden et al, 2009), and clinical (e.g., Jamadar, Michie, & Karayanidis, 2010a;Karayanidis et al, 2006;Kieffaber et al, 2006) studies that aim to identify the mechanism that underlies poor task switching performance and will, in turn, inform development of targeted training programs. …”

“…In prepared conditions, switch and repeat trials diverge as early as 150 ms, but at short CTIs, this effect is delayed until the switch positivity is resolved (Karayanidis et al, 2003;Muller, Schlee, Hartmann, Lorenz, & Weisz, 2009;Nicholson et al, 2005). N2 amplitude progressively increases across single-task, repeat, and switch trials (Goffaux, Phillips, Sinai, & Pushkar, 2006;Jost et al, 2008;Karayanidis, Whitson, Heathcote, & Michie, 2011), from univalent to bivalent targets (Hsieh & Liu, 2008;Karayanidis et al, 2003;Poulsen et al, 2005), and progressively reduces with increasing the length of repeat runs (i.e., ABB vs. ABBB, vs. ABBBB; Wylie et al, 2003). The increase in N2 amplitude with increasing level of interference is accompanied by progressive reduction in P3b amplitude, consistent with greater difficulty of decision processes.…”

Metacognitive Processes in Executive Control Development: The Case of Reactive and Proactive Control

“…Finally, early cue presentation was terminated on target onset in the “Proactive Encouraged” condition, encouraging children to process the cue proactively by increasing the difficulty of reactive control, since the cue would had to be retrieved from memory if not processed before target onset. Besides behavioral indices, the temporal dynamic of control was directly examined using cue-locked ERPs, through the late posterior positivity associated with cue-based task selection, and pupil dilation, whose temporal fluctuations reflect changes in mental effort—both indices have been previously used to capture reactive and proactive control (Chatham et al, 2009; Chiew & Braver, 2013; Karayanidis et al, 2011). …”