“…Whatever the measure of inequality -Gini, Theil, index of dissimilarity, ratio, or difference -or outcome of interest -life expectancy, fertility, schooling, access to higher education, homicide rate, occupational prestige, or per capita income -whites consistently possess more resources and occupy hierarchically better positions than blacks (pretos and pardos) 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 . Whites' advantages in relation to blacks also persist over time, although recent evidence suggests a trend towards reduction in this difference in Brazil 8,9 .…”