Vegetables and Mixed Dishes Are Top Contributors to Phylloquinone Intake in US Adults: Data from the 2011-2012 NHANES

Abstract

Phylloquinone is the most abundant form of vitamin K in US diets. Green vegetables are considered the predominant dietary source of phylloquinone. As our food supply diversifies and expands, the food groups that contribute to phylloquinone intake are also changing, which may change absolute intakes. Thus, it is important to identify the contributors to dietary vitamin K estimates to guide recommendations on intakes and food sources. The purpose of this study was to estimate ) the amount of phylloquinone consumed in the diet of US adults,) to estimate the contribution of different food groups to phylloquinone intake in individuals with a high or low vegetable intake (≥2 or <2 cups vegetables/d), and ) to characterize the contribution of different mixed dishes to phylloquinone intake. Usual phylloquinone intake was determined from NHANES 2011-2012 (≥20 y old; 2092 men and 2214 women) and the National Cancer Institute Method by utilizing a complex, stratified, multistage probability-cluster sampling design. On average, 43.0% of men and 62.5% of women met the adequate intake (120 and 90 μg/d, respectively) for phylloquinone, with the lowest self-reported intakes noted among men, especially in the older age groups (51-70 and ≥71 y). Vegetables were the highest contributor to phylloquinone intake, contributing 60.0% in the high-vegetable-intake group and 36.1% in the low-vegetable-intake group. Mixed dishes were the second-highest contributor to phylloquinone intake, contributing 16.0% in the high-vegetable-intake group and 28.0% in the low-vegetable-intake group. Self-reported phylloquinone intakes from updated food composition data applied to NHANES 2011-2012 reveal that fewer men than women are meeting the current adequate intake. Application of current food composition data confirms that vegetables continue to be the primary dietary source of phylloquinone in the US diet. However, mixed dishes and convenience foods have emerged as previously unrecognized but important contributors to phylloquinone intake in the United States, which challenges the assumption that phylloquinone intake is a marker of a healthy diet. These findings emphasize the need for the expansion of food composition databases that consider how mixed dishes are compiled and defined.

A Diet High in Processed Foods, Total Carbohydrates and Added Sugars, and Low in Vegetables and Protein Is Characteristic of Youth with Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder

“…We did not find any other micronutrient insufficiency in this group, which may be attributed to consumption of processed foods. Food processing practices, such as enrichment and fortification, improve the nutrient content in foods by incorporating a variety of fat- and water-soluble vitamins and minerals that help individuals meet the DRI [57,58,59]. With respect to our findings, B vitamins, including vitamin B12, are often found in fortified cereals, whereas vitamin K is not used in enrichment or fortification due to its interaction with anticoagulants [43,54].…”

Liquid Chromatography Analysis of Common Nutritional Components, in Feed and Food

“…It promotes the absorption of calcium, regulates bone growth and plays a role in immune function [359]. Lastly, vitamin K is an essential nutrient for animals and humans because it is required for functioning of the blood clotting cascade [360], just as vitamin D, vitamin K can be found in two forms i.e., phylloquinone (vitamin K 1 , found in green plant leaves e.g., spinach, collards, lettuce, and broccoli [361]) and menaquinone (vitamin K 2 , bacterium residing in the vertebrate intestine [362]).…”

Biofortification of Chicken Eggs with Vitamin K—Nutritional and Quality Improvements

“…Clearly, while strategies are needed to improve vitamin K intakes, there are some important hurdles which point toward the need for additional creative food-based solutions. Vegetables and vegetable dishes are key food contributors to vitamin K intake [4,5,9]. Promoting greater vegetable consumption in the population, across all age groups, has been a mainstay of dietary guidelines over several decades, but adherence and uptake of this advice have been challenging [10,11].…”