Venom Collection from Spiders and Snakes: Voluntary and Involuntary Extractions (“Milking”) and Venom Gland Extractions

Hayes, William K.; Fox, Gordon A.; Nelsen, David R.

doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-9845-6_3

Cited by 9 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 24 publications

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“…Spider electro-stimulation was done by placing the electrodes on the prosoma and cheliceral base for 5 s, electrodes were moved at different positions to get as much venom as possible. Electrostimulation method was chosen based on its efficiency for extracting venom in large spiders [63]. At the same time, two glass capillary tubes (internal diameter (mean ± SE): 1.16 ± 0.004 mm) were placed over the tips of the fangs to collect the venom and prevent possible contamination from other fluids the spider may expel.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Prey and Venom Efficacy of Male and Female Wandering Spider, Phoneutria boliviensis (Araneae: Ctenidae)

Valenzuela‐Rojas

González‐Gómez

Meijden

et al. 2019

Toxins

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Spiders rely on venom to catch prey and few species are even capable of capturing vertebrates. The majority of spiders are generalist predators, possessing complex venom, in which different toxins seem to target different types of prey. In this study, we focused on the trophic ecology and venom toxicity of Phoneutria boliviensis F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897, a Central American spider of medical importance. We tested the hypothesis that its venom is adapted to catch vertebrate prey by studying its trophic ecology and venom toxicity against selected vertebrate and invertebrate prey. We compared both trophic ecology (based on acceptance experiments) and toxicity (based on bioassays) among sexes of this species. We found that P. boliviensis accepted geckos, spiders, and cockroaches as prey, but rejected frogs. There was no difference in acceptance between males and females. The venom of P. boliviensis was far more efficient against vertebrate (geckos) than invertebrate (spiders) prey in both immobilization time and LD50. Surprisingly, venom of males was more efficient than that of females. Our results suggest that P. boliviensis has adapted its venom to catch vertebrates, which may explain its toxicity to humans.

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Prey and Venom Efficacy of Male and Female Wandering Spider, Phoneutria boliviensis (Araneae: Ctenidae)

Valenzuela‐Rojas

González‐Gómez

Meijden

et al. 2019

Toxins

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“…A trial began when one investigator (always CEP) removed the snake from its home cage using a snake hook and placed it on a piece of carpet on the floor. Another investigator (always WKH, who was “blind” to which population the snake was from except for the largest snakes, which were always from the mainland) pinned the snake with a snake hook, leaned over to grasp the snake by the head and neck, and then induced the snake to bite a Parafilm-covered beaker secured to a ring stand [ 151 ]. We videotaped each venom extraction using a Logitech Orbit AS web cam (Logitech, Lausanne, Switzerland; 30 fields/s).…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Paradoxical Exception to Island Tameness: Increased Defensiveness in an Insular Population of Rattlesnakes

Hayes,

Person,

Fox

et al. 2024

Toxins

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Island tameness results largely from a lack of natural predators. Because some insular rattlesnake populations lack functional rattles, presumably the consequence of relaxed selection from reduced predation, we hypothesized that on Santa Catalina Island, California, USA, populations of the southern Pacific rattlesnake (Crotalus helleri), which possesses functional rattles, would exhibit a decrement in defensive behavior relative to their mainland counterparts. Contrary to our prediction, rattlesnakes from the island not only lacked tameness compared to mainland snakes, but instead exhibited measurably greater levels of defensiveness. Island snakes attempted to bite 4.7 times more frequently as we endeavored to secure them by hand, and required 2.1-fold more time to be pinned and captured. When induced to bite a beaker after being grasped, the island snakes also delivered 2.1-fold greater quantities of venom when controlling for body size. The additional venom resulted from 2.1-fold larger pulses of venom ejected from the fangs. We found no effects of duration in captivity (2–36 months), which suggests an absence of long-term habituation of antipredator behaviors. Breeding bird surveys and Christmas bird counts indicated reduced population densities of avian predators on Catalina compared to the mainland. However, historical estimates confirmed that populations of foxes and introduced mammalian predators (cats and pigs) and antagonists (herbivorous ungulates) substantially exceeded those on the mainland in recent centuries, and therefore best explain the paradoxically exaggerated defensive behaviors exhibited by Catalina’s rattlesnakes. These findings augment our understanding of anthropogenic effects on the behaviors of island animals and underscore how these effects can negatively affect human safety.

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“…The amount, composition, and properties of the venom obtained vary according to the extraction method. The most used techniques are crushing and washing the spider's cephalothorax followed by recovering the diluted venom; collecting venom in capillary tubes inserted in the glands' lumen; surgically extracting the glands and homogenizing them in different buffers [128,129]; electrically stimulating live specimens forcing venom ejection [130]; inducing spider bites on cotton or absorbent paper [131]; and stressing the specimens until they eject venom drops in capillary tubes [132]. Each of these techniques has its limitations such as the wide variation in individual responses of the extracted specimens; contamination by tissues or other body secretions; contamination by external agents; very low venom yield; and losses between processing steps [133].…”

Section: Methods For Venom Collectionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Widow spiders in the New World: a review on Latrodectus Walckenaer, 1805 (Theridiidae) and latrodectism in the Americas

Caruso

Lauria

Souza

et al. 2021

J. Venom. Anim. Toxins incl. Trop. Dis

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Humankind has always been fascinated by venomous animals, as their toxic substances have transformed them into symbols of power and mystery. Over the centuries, researchers have been trying to understand animal venoms, unveiling intricate mixtures of molecules and their biological effects. Among venomous animals, Latrodectus Walckenaer, 1805 (widow spiders) have become feared in many cultures worldwide due to their extremely neurotoxic venom. The Latrodectus genus encompasses 32 species broadly spread around the globe, 14 of which occur in the Americas. Despite the high number of species found in the New World, the knowledge on these spiders is still scarce. This review covers the general knowledge on Latrodectus spp. from the Americas. We address widow spiders' taxonomy; geographical distribution and epidemiology; symptoms and treatments of envenomation (latrodectism); venom collection, experimental studies, proteome and transcriptome; and biotechnological studies on these Latrodectus spp. Moreover, we discuss the main challenges and limitations faced by researchers when trying to comprehend this neglected group of medically important spiders. We expect this review to help overcome the lack of information regarding widow spiders in the New World.

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Venom Collection from Spiders and Snakes: Voluntary and Involuntary Extractions (“Milking”) and Venom Gland Extractions

Cited by 9 publications

References 24 publications

Prey and Venom Efficacy of Male and Female Wandering Spider, Phoneutria boliviensis (Araneae: Ctenidae)

Prey and Venom Efficacy of Male and Female Wandering Spider, Phoneutria boliviensis (Araneae: Ctenidae)

Paradoxical Exception to Island Tameness: Increased Defensiveness in an Insular Population of Rattlesnakes

Widow spiders in the New World: a review on Latrodectus Walckenaer, 1805 (Theridiidae) and latrodectism in the Americas

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