Viruses as immunological adjuvants in cancer

Pathogenesis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection

“…By linkage with an HIV protein (e.g., envelope) acting as a hapten, these cellular proteins now become immunogenic and elicit an immune response in the host. This phenomenon reflects a carrier-hapten mechanism (699). The subsequent production of autoantibodies leads to the sequelae recognized.…”

“…As shown in other viral systems, HIV could, after infecting the cell, uncover cellular proteins that are not normally recognized as foreign by the immune system (699). By linkage with an HIV protein (e.g., envelope) acting as a hapten, these cellular proteins now become immunogenic and elicit an immune response in the host.…”

p53-Independent Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Mediated Cytotoxicity of a Newcastle Disease Virus Strain in Tumor Cell Lines

“…Defects in the interferon pathway may account for an increased susceptibility to virus infection (42). Alternatively, immunological processes induced by virus infection are responsible for the cytotoxicity observed (24,33). Although oncolytic viruses represent a promising possibility for effective therapeutic strategies against resistant cancers, only limited investigations to explain the cellular mechanisms of these oncolytic effects have been conducted so far.…”

Protection of mice against cancer by immunization with membranes but not purified virions from virus infected cancer cells

“…Definitive investigations require the use of (1) syngeneic tumours, to avoid the complications associated with allografts, and (2) immunogens freed of infectious virus, to rule out the possibility that residual live virus persists in the mouse for long enough to destroy the tumour cell graft. Most of the pioneering studies were open to question on both counts (Lindenmann and Klein, 1967a, b;Lindenmann, 1970Lindenmann, , 1973Lindenmann, , 1974 The most attractive hypothesis, attributable to Mitchison (1970), is that a highly immunogenic viral antigen acts as a " helper determinant " to enhance the immunological response against the relatively weak TSTA. The topological relationship of viral antigen to TSTA in the plasma membrane or in the viral envelope is unknown.…”

“…Viruses used include influenza strain WSA (Lindenmann and Klein, 1967a, b;Hakkinen and Halonen, 1971;Boone, Blackman and Brandchaft, 1971;Boone and Blackman, 1972;, influenza strain WSN (Klein, 1974), influenza A2 Hongkong , strains of avian influenza virus (Lindenmann and Klein, 1967a;Lindenmann, 1970), Newcastle disease virus (Axler and Girardi, 1970;Beverley, Lowenthal and Tyrrell, 1973;Eaton, Heller and Scala, 1973), vesicular stomatitis virus (Lindenmann, 1970;Hakkinen and Halonen, 1971;Boone et al, 1974) and Friend leukaemia virus (Kobayashi et al, 1970). Possible mechanisms of this virus induced immune potentiation have been discussed by Mitchison (1970), Lindenmann (1973Lindenmann ( , 1974 and . One of the suggested mechanisms is that the viral antigen acts as a "helper determinant " (Mitchison, 1970).…”