Water quality status of groundwater and municipal water supply (tap water) from Bagmati river basin in Kathmandu valley, Nepal

Abstract

Poor waste management in the Kathmandu valley has deteriorated the water quality of surface and groundwater sources. The objective of this study was to assess the status of water quality (WQ) in drinking water sources of groundwater and municipal supply (tap water) from the Bagmati river basin in Kathmandu valley. A total of 52 water samples from deep tube-well, tube-well, dug-well, and tap water were collected and analyzed for physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters using standard methods. The results revealed that chloride, total hardness (TH), copper, nitrate, sulfate, and turbidity were within the recommendations of the National Drinking Water Quality Standard (NDWQS). Total coliform (TC) bacteria in 84.6% of the samples exceeded drinking water guidelines. Similarly, the isolates of different enteric bacteria, namely Escherichia coli (21.5%), Citrobacter spp. (20.9%), Klebsiella spp. (19.8%), Proteus spp. (13.9%), Enterobacter spp. (8.72%), Salmonella spp. (5.8%), Shigella spp. (5.2%), and Pseudomonas (4.1%) were identified in the samples collected from the respective sources. Out of the 52 water samples, 7.7% of samples had fecal contamination of somatic coliphage. The groundwater and municipal water supply in the study area are not safe for drinking purposes. Treatment of water is required before its use for household applications.

Potential health hazard of drinking water in restaurants and tea stalls

“…In Nepal, the tap water turbidity is 12.4 NTU, which is greater than the WHO standards and may imply the presence of huge, dissolved substances. The manganese of our study exceeded the WHO standards by 0.09 mg/L, while another prior study by Bhandari et al (2021) exceeded by 0.11 mg/L than the standards. In the case of E. coli and total coliform parameters, reported prior studies and this study show the presence of potential health hazards.…”

“…Only 1.16% of DW samples showed an iron level exceeding the recommended level of 0.3–1.0 mg/L (ECR, 1997). The presence of an excessive amount of iron makes the DW aesthetically unpleasant due to metallic taste, discoloration, and turbidity, odor, and also causes staining of plumbing and laundry fixtures (Bhandari et al., 2021). The manganese concentration in the DW samples is found in the range of 0–0.65 mg/L, with an average value of 0.195 mg/L.…”

“…(13.9%), and Klebsiella spp. (19.8%) and declares the DW quality unsafe, requiring further treatment (Bhandari et al., 2021). Several other studies (Chatterjee et al., 2007; Gupta et al., 2011; King et al., 2000; Nkere et al., 2011 Vollaard et al., 2004) also found the presence of high fecal counts in the DW in hotels and restaurants in India, Indonesia, Ghana, and Nigeria, which may have substantial public health consequences and necessary steps should be taken for its treatment before drinking.…”

“…Coliforms are a class of bacteria in the open environment and also in the guts of warm-blooded animals, and their existence in DW indicates bacterial contamination(Odankar & Ampofa, 2013). The TC class of bacteria consists of environmental and fecal species, whereas the presence of E.coli in DW indicates fecal contamination of DW and can be a trace of pathogenic viruses, helminths, and protozoa(WHOGV, 2017, Bhandari et al, 2021.Studies byAlam et al (2006),Moniruzzaman et al (2011), Nawas et al (2012), and Sarker et al (2016 also reported higher microbial contamination of the DW with fecal coliforms and E. coli of the DW in various hotels and restaurants in different parts of Bangladesh, and the microbial contamination scenarios of the DW are very much similar to the current study. Since millions of people in Bangladesh drink water from restaurants and tea stalls, most people think that this water is a keyway for microbes to spread and cause a number of water-borne and intestinal diseases.…”

Study the optical properties of drinking water supply by KUKL and KVWSIP in Kathmandu Valley

“…The pH value of the taken sample ranges from acidic (> 6 pH), neutral, and alkaline (> 7 pH), and such pH rages in drinking water have a negative impact on public health. Among the enteric bacteria isolated from groundwater samples is [10]. According to the WHO, about 80% of all sickness and diseases are caused by poor sanitation, pollution, or a lack of water.…”