When strange bedfellows go all in: a template for implementing non‐lethal strategies aimed at reducing carnivore predation of livestock

Abstract

In the Rocky Mountains of the USA, abundances and distributions of grizzly bear Ursus arctos and gray wolf Canis lupus have increased (Bangs et al., 2001; Nicholson & Hendricks, 2018). This has led to increased predation of livestock in areas where livestock producers have not needed to implement conflict prevention methods in recent history. Lethal removal of carnivores that kill livestock remains a common source of carnivore mortalities (Woodroffe, 2001; Broekhuis, Cushman & Elliot, 2017). In the USA, the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Wildlife Services (USDA-WS) is often asked by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or a State's wildlife management agency to lethally remove large carnivores that depredate livestock. Where possible, conservation practitioners favor increased use of non-lethal tools to replace lethal methods aimed at preventing depredation of livestock. Conservation groups often dispute management actions for large carnivores, sometimes resulting in lawsuits. It is often challenging to look beyond these differences and note that the ultimate goal of these diverse groups is typically some variation on the same theme: to increase coexistence by reducing conflicts between humans and carnivores. Non-lethal tools that reduce livestock depredation could facilitate coexistence; however, scientists note a distinct lack of experimental studies that adequately evaluate the efficacy of non-lethal tools (Eklund et al., 2017; van Eeden et al., 2018). A call for more research is warranted, but the time and resource requirements associated with research are often mismatched to the immediate needs of protecting livestock, large carnivores, and the livelihoods of livestock producers. One non-lethal tool available to reduce depredation of livestock by wolves is fladry. Fladry consists of strands of flags, measuring approximately 50-cm long by 10-cm wide, sewn onto nylon rope at 45-cm intervals. Fladry acts as a primary repellent by taking advantage of the fact that wolves are neophobic and relies on producing a flight response to deter them (Shivik, 2006). When the flags are hung just

An applied ecology of fear framework: linking theory to conservation practice

“…In other cases, conflict mitigation tools are associated with novel or fear‐inducing sensory stimuli. For example, fladry, which consists of plastic flags hanging from ropes, deters wolves in the western US from entering pastures and killing cattle ( Bos taurus ; Musiani et al ., 2003; Young et al ., 2019). By understanding what sensory cues instill fear in animals and how long fear effects are likely to persist, as discussed further in the research agenda section below, it is possible to manipulate these cues to adjust animal behavior and design an effective deployment schedule.…”

Pathways towards coexistence with large carnivores in production systems

“…Within urban communities there has been a decline in public support for lethal methods and a shift in favor of finding solutions that can protect agriculture and carnivores simultaneously (Graham et al 2005;Slagle et al 2013;Manfredo et al 2018). This has created a greater impetus for conservation NGOs as agitators of change to pressure livestock industries to transition away from traditional lethal approaches towards the adoption preventive innovations that support wildlife persistence (Young et al 2019).…”

Mind the gap: Experimental tests to improve efficacy of fladry for nonlethal management of coyotes

“…Observations of coyotes interacting with fladry in previous studies suggest coyotes are likely to overcome their neophobia more rapidly than wolves by slipping through gaps between the flags and rendering it ineffective (Davidson‐Nelson and Gehring , Young et al ; Fig. ).…”