Where Do They Come from and Where Do They Go: Candidates for Regulating Extracellular Vesicle Formation in Fungi

Abstract

In the past few years, extracellular vesicles (EVs) from at least eight fungal species were characterized. EV proteome in four fungal species indicated putative biogenesis pathways and suggested interesting similarities with mammalian exosomes. Moreover, as observed for mammalian exosomes, fungal EVs were demonstrated to be immunologically active. Here we review the seminal and most recent findings related to the production of EVs by fungi. Based on the current literature about secretion of fungal molecules and biogenesis of EVs in eukaryotes, we focus our discussion on a list of cellular proteins with the potential to regulate vesicle biogenesis in the fungi.

Lipid Biosynthetic Genes Affect Candida albicans Extracellular Vesicle Morphology, Cargo, and Immunostimulatory Properties

“…We note that although no single gene has been associated with a null phenotype for vesicle production in either bacteria or fungi, several genes have now been shown to modify aspects of EV composition and structure (35,36). In this study, we report that genes involved in phospholipid synthesis can affect a variety of secretion phenotypes based not only on cell wall integrity but also on release of EVs carrying microbial cargo.…”

Profiling the Secretome and Extracellular Proteome of the Potato Late Blight Pathogen Phytophthora infestans

“…In addition, the term "secretome" is frequently misinterpreted as the extracellular proteome whereas it is limited to the collection of signal peptide containing proteins that are handled via the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus before secretion (18). Many proteins identified in the plant cell apoplast belong to leaderless secretory proteins (LSP) (19,20) and similar findings have been reported for fungi and animals (21,22). Meanwhile, several unconventional protein secretion systems have been described including self-sustained protein translocation, ABC-transporter based secretion, exosome/autophagosome mediated secretion, and microvesicle shedding/blebbing (19,(22)(23)(24)(25)(26).…”

“…Although hyphal lysis may occur, there are evidences that the presence of intracellular proteins in the extracellular medium-such as enolases, ribonucleases, and related proteins-might act as virulence factors and be involved in a variety of extracellular functions (22,60,61). Therefore, proteins identified by de novo sequencing were annotated by sequence homology with other oomycetes to search for additional evidence supporting their identification.…”

Potential of yeast secretory vesicles in biodelivery systems

“…Exosomes carry proteins and/or nucleic acids, particularly miRNAs and mRNAs, from one cell to other cells [1,[5][6][7][8][9][10]. They serve as shuttle vectors and act as mediators of intercellular communication, immune responses, and antigen presentation [5][6][7][8].…”

“…They serve as shuttle vectors and act as mediators of intercellular communication, immune responses, and antigen presentation [5][6][7][8]. Exosomes are evolutionarily conserved from lower to higher eukaryotic organisms (i.e., from fungi to mammals).…”