White on Black

Abstract

In this article, the authors examine White parents’ endeavors toward the racial enculturation and inculcation of their transracially adopted Black children. Drawing on in-depth interviews, the authors identify and analyze themes across the specific race socialization strategies and practices White adoptive parents used to help their adopted Black children to develop a positive racial identity and learn how to effectively cope with issues of race and racism. The central aim of this article is to examine how these lessons about race help to connect family members to U.S. society’s existing racial hierarchy and how these associations position individuals to help perpetuate or challenge the deeply embedded and historical structures of White supremacy. The authors use the notion of White racial framing to move outside of the traditional arguments for or against transracial adoption to instead explore how a close analysis of the adoptive parents’ racial instructions may serve as a learning tool to foster more democratic and inclusive forms of family and community.

Lesbian, Gay, and Heterosexual Adoptive Parents’ Socialization Approaches to Children’s Minority Statuses

“…Such efforts are consistent with an enculturation perspective, whereby parents believe in the value of, and make efforts to promote, racial and ethnic awareness and pride (Lee, 2003). Alongside efforts to promote a positive racial identity in children, parents sometimes engage in preparation for racism (i.e., racial inculcation) or teach their children coping skills to help them prepare for and deal with racism (Lee, 2003;Smith et al, 2011). Although little research has examined racial inculcation in adoptive parents, existing work suggests that few White adoptive parents engage in preparation for racism; they more often downplay racist comments, regardless of the child's race or ethnicity (samples included Black, Latino, and Asian children; Friedlander et al, 2000;Johnson, Shireman, & Watson, 1987).…”

“…Other transracial adoptive parents have been described as engaging in fairly intensive racial socialization, whereby they explicitly acknowledge racial differences and seek out racially conscious, inclusive educational and social opportunities (Friedlander et al, 2000;Smith, Juarez, & Jacobson, 2011). Such efforts are consistent with an enculturation perspective, whereby parents believe in the value of, and make efforts to promote, racial and ethnic awareness and pride (Lee, 2003).…”

“…In general, research on racial socialization by White adoptive parents has almost exclusively focused on parents with school-age children (Anderson et al, 2015;Friedlander et al, 2000;Smith et al, 2011). Little attention has been given to how socialization processes might be uniquely shaped by children's developmental context, whereby parents with younger children engage in particular approaches or considerations related to their children's age.…”

“…A "colorblind" approach may be more common in transracial adoptions where White parents have adopted children who have a lighter skin tone, as opposed to children with darker skin, because the former group of children tends to more closely resemble their parents and are thus seen as assimilating more easily into mainstream culture (Gianino, Goldberg, & Lewis, 2009). Other transracial adoptive parents have been described as engaging in fairly intensive racial socialization, whereby they explicitly acknowledge racial differences and seek out racially conscious, inclusive educational and social opportunities (Friedlander et al, 2000;Smith, Juarez, & Jacobson, 2011). Such efforts are consistent with an enculturation perspective, whereby parents believe in the value of, and make efforts to promote, racial and ethnic awareness and pride (Lee, 2003).…”

Patterns of implicit and explicit attitudes in children and adults: Tests in the domain of religion.

“…Though 6–8 year old children are capable of responding in socially desirable ways when they feel accountable to others (FitzRoy & Rutland, 2010; Rutland et al ., 2005), children of this age have not spontaneously demonstrated group-based socially desirable responding in any domain previously studied. Even in the domain of race—a particularly sensitive area in which parents explicitly teach egalitarian ideals (Hughes et al ., 2006; Lesane-Brown, 2006; Smith, Juarez, & Jacobson, 2011)—children report in-group and dominant-group biases. It is unclear why they should do so in the domain of religion.…”