Why Anger and Disappointment Affect Other’s Bargaining Behavior Differently

Abstract

In two experiments, the authors investigated the interpersonal effects of anger and disappointment in negotiations. Whereas previous research focused on the informational inferences that bargainers make based on others' emotions, this article emphasizes the importance of affective reactions. The findings of this study show that anger evoked a complementary emotion (fear) in targets when reported by a high-power bargainer but evoked a reciprocal emotion (anger) when reported by a low-power bargainer. This reciprocal anger led participants to offer less to low-power counterparts who reported anger. Disappointed bargainers, however, evoked a complementary emotion (guilt) in participants and increased offers, regardless of the bargainer's power position.

Disappointment expression evokes collective guilt and collective action in intergroup conflict: the moderating role of legitimacy perceptions

“…It conveys an appraisal of the situation's perceived injustice and attribution of outgroup blame (Frijda et al, 1989;Montada & Schneider, 1989). However, research from the social-functional approach has demonstrated that although induced guilt in a receiver is a complementary emotion of a sender's expressed disappointment, induced anger in a receiver is a reciprocal emotion of a sender's expressed anger (Lelieveld et al, 2012;Lelieveld, Van Dijk, Van Beest, Steinel, & Van Kleef, 2011). We therefore expected the effect of the outgroup's disappointment expression to induce collective guilt rather than outgroup-directed anger.…”

“…Research has already shown that disappointment induces complementary emotions of guilt among observers in the interpersonal contexts (Lelieveld, Van Dijk, Van Beest, & Van Kleef, 2012). In the intergroup context, perceiving the ingroup as responsible for immoral actions that harmed the outgroup can potentially evoke collective guilt even among individuals who were not personally involved in the transgressions (Branscombe & Doosje, 2004;Branscombe, Doosje, & McGarty, 2002).…”

“…Examples of moderators that influence predictive power of observers' emotions and subsequent behaviour are power, need for closure, and group membership (Lelieveld et al, 2012(Lelieveld et al, , 2013Van Kleef, De Dreu, & Manstead, 2004b). One plausible moderator for the effect of the expression of disappointment on the target's affective and behavioural tendencies is the appraisal of the receiver's actions' legitimacy (see also Van Kleef & Côté, 2007).…”

“…Also, both emotions have a "supplication" function (Van Kleef et al, 2006), which reflects a distress call (Timmers, Fischer, & Manstead, 1998). That is, both emotions are negatively valenced and signal feelings of powerlessness and an experience of low control over the event (Frijda et al, 1989;Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson, 2003;Lelieveld et al, 2012;Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). Lastly, because of their supplication function, they have both been found to evoke supportive and helpful responses in observers (e.g.…”

“…Miceli & Castelfranchi, 2015;Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002), whereas fear arises in light of an appraisal of threat or danger of being harmed with no positive expectations expressed (Smith & Lazarus, 1993). Also, whereas in the interpersonal realm the expression of disappointment evokes the complementary emotion of guilt in the observer (Lelieveld et al, 2012), fear increases sympathy and compassion (see Van Kleef et al, 2006).…”