Why is Past Depression the Best Predictor of Future Depression? Stress Generation as a Mechanism of Depression Continuity in Girls

Abstract

This study examined whether a transactional interpersonal life stress model helps to explain the continuity in depression over time in girls. Youth (86 girls, 81 boys; M age = 12.41, SD = 1.19) and their caregivers participated in a three-wave longitudinal study. Depression and episodic life stress were assessed with semi-structured interviews. Path analysis provided support for a transactional interpersonal life stress model in girls but not in boys, wherein depression predicted the generation of interpersonal stress, which predicted subsequent depression. Moreover, self-generated interpersonal stress partially accounted for the continuity of depression over time. Although depression predicted noninterpersonal stress generation in girls (but not in boys), noninterpersonal stress did not predict subsequent depression.Youth depression is a recurrent and chronic disorder that often portends ongoing distress and impairment (for a review, see Rudolph, Hammen, & Daley, 2006). Despite the well-known fact that past depression is the best predictor of future depression (e.g., Lewinsohn, Zeiss, & Duncan, 1989;Tram & Cole, 2006), little research directly investigates the mechanisms that underlie the continuity of depression. The goal of the present research was to investigate one possible mechanism. Drawing from transactional perspectives of psychopathology (Cicchetti, Rogosch, & Toth, 1994;Sameroff & MacKenzie, 2003) and interpersonal theories of depression (Coyne, 1976;Hammen, 1992Hammen, , 2006Joiner, Coyne, & Blalock, 1999), this research examined the hypothesis that depressed youth generate stress in their relationships that contributes to the continuity of depression over time (see Figure 1). More specifically, based on theory and research indicating that girls show particular vulnerabilities within their relationships (for a review, see Rudolph, in press), it was expected that interpersonal stress generation would more likely serve as a mechanism underlying depression continuity in girls than in boys. Transactional Interpersonal Theories of DepressionTransactional perspectives of psychopathology posit that youth and their social contexts participate in dynamic interchanges over time, creating feedback loops that stimulate reorganization at both the individual and environmental levels (Cicchetti et al., 1994;Sameroff & MacKenzie, 2003). Consistent with these perspectives, interpersonal theories of depression suggest that depressed individuals act in ways that elicit rejection and stress in their relationships; these disturbances then perpetuate depression. For example, Coyne's (1976) pioneering theory articulates an escalating cycle of interpersonal disturbances and depressive symptoms. Depressed individuals are thought to engage in excessive efforts to seek reassurance from their relationship partners. These efforts provoke avoidance or rejection, which then NIH Public Access

An Examination of Integrated Cognitive-Interpersonal Vulnerability to Depression: The Role of Rumination, Perceived Social Support, and Interpersonal Stress Generation

“…In turn, although W 2 dependent achievement stress and W 3 depressive symptoms were significantly positively correlated, W 2 dependent achievement stress did not predict elevations in depressive symptoms over time. This finding is consistent with one previous study in which dependent interpersonal, but not dependent noninterpersonal, life stress prospectively predicted depressive symptoms in girls (Rudolph et al 2009). The experience of dependent interpersonal stress may influence self-perceptions more robustly than dependent achievement stress, such that relationship disturbances create more negative self-appraisals than self-generated achievement stressors and, consequently, are a more robust predictor of depressive symptoms.…”

Disentangling the Longitudinal Relation Between Loneliness and Depressive Symptoms: Prospective Effects and the Intervening Role of Coping

“…Indeed, previous work showed that a history of depressive symptoms may have a cumulative effect on maladjustment (Wickrama & Wickrama, 2010), suggesting that the prospective associations between loneliness and depressive symptoms could be stronger for people with an enduring history of depression. Furthermore, certain depression theories propose interpersonal stress (related to loneliness) as underlying mechanisms in the continuity of depression (e.g., interpersonal stress generation; Rudolph, Flynn, Abaied, Groot, & Thompson, 2009). Likewise, certain loneliness theories suggest depressotypic characteristics as underlying mechanisms in the continuity of loneliness (e.g., lowered reward response to positive events; Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009).…”

Peer Attachment and Youth Internalizing Problems: A Meta-Analysis

“…In addition, for girls only, depression is also self-perpetuating as it contributes to interpersonal stress (Rudolph et al 2009). Compared to boys, girls report more social-evaluative concerns regarding the quality of their close relationships and the judgments they receive from others (Rose and Rudolph 2006).…”