Why the COVID-19 pandemic is a traumatic stressor

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic stress symptoms as a result of this ongoing global stressor. Current pathogenic event models focus on past, and largely direct, trauma exposure to certain kinds of life-threatening events. Nevertheless, among a sample of online participants ( N = 1,040) in five western countries, we found participants had PTSD-like symptoms for events that had not happened and when participants had been directly (e.g., contact with virus) or indirectly exposed to COVID-19 (e.g., via media). Moreover, 13.2% of our sample were likely PTSD-positive, despite types of COVID-19 “exposure” (e.g., lockdown) not fitting DSM-5 criteria. The emotional impact of “worst” experienced/anticipated events best predicted PTSD-like symptoms. Our findings add to existing literature supporting a pathogenic event memory model of traumatic stress.

Peritraumatic Distress and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms During the COVID‐19 Pandemic: The Contributions of Psychosocial Factors and Pandemic‐Related Stressors

“…Given the predominance of convenience samples in the reported studies, it is not possible to reach credible conclusions regarding the prevalence of PTSS in the general population in Croatia or other countries. In addition, given that the COVID‐19 pandemic may not have exposed many individuals to life‐threatening situations or directly exposed them to others’ such experiences, different authors have suggested numerous arguments why COVID‐19‐related stressors should or should not be considered to be potentially traumatic (Bridgland et al., 2020 ; Karatzias et al., 2020 ; Van Overmeire, 2020 ). Despite these disagreements, the fact remains that COVID‐19 provokes the threat of death and causes PTSS in a significant portion of the population.…”

“…Although research on both past pandemics (Lam et al., 2009 ; Mak et al., 2010 ) and the current COVID‐19 pandemic (Bridgland et al., 2020 ; Karatzias et al., 2020 ; Liu et al., 2020 ; Sun et al., 2020 ) has consistently indicated an increased incidence of PTSS in the population, there have been disagreements regarding whether exposure to COVID‐19 stressors should be considered traumatic stressors consistent with what is required for fulfilling the criteria for the PTSD diagnosis. According to the PTSD diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fifth ed.…”

“…On the other hand, Bridgland et al. ( 2020 ) proposed that traumatic stress reactions to the COVID‐19 pandemic in the general population may relate more to the future than the past (e.g., fear of being infected) and more to indirect exposure (e.g., via media coverage) versus direct exposure (e.g., contact with the virus). In addition, Bridgland et al.…”

“…Consequently, regardless of the “objective” danger the virus may have posed, many individuals’ personal experiences were very intense, negative, and, as suggested by Bridgland et al. ( 2020 ), potentially traumatic.…”

Remote Forensic Psychological Assessment in Civil Cases: Considerations for Experts Assessing Harms from Early Life Abuse

“…Multiple surveys across nations suggest a significant increase in mental health difficulties (CAMH, 2020;Czeisler et al, 2020;Mental Health American, 2020;Statistics Canada, 2020;Xiong et al, 2020) and a recent article by Bridgland et al (2021) suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic is, itself, a traumatic stressor. Among the representative sample of the American population, Czeisler et al (2020) found that 40.9% of respondents reported at least one adverse mental or behavioral health condition, and that 26.3% of the respondents were reporting symptoms of traumatic stress related to the pandemic.…”