After 1945 a particular form of trade union activity and organisation was pre-eminent throughout Western Europe. Participating within stable institutions of industrial or national collective bargaining and firmly embedded within the nation state, this form of unionism secured real wage increases for its members, extended organisation throughout much of manufacturing and the public sector, and successfully lobbied for a raft of statutory individual and collective protections. Beyond the narrow sphere of bargaining, unions influenced the terms and development of welfare provision, promoted re-distributive policies and improved the level and timing of pension arrangements. The end of the long post-war boom during the late 1970s marked the onset of decline for this form of unionism. By the 1990s decline had deepened to crisis as the breadth and depth of the challenges facing unions from the pattern of economic development, shifts in political climate, and employers' policies transformed the terrain of union engagement.Accompanying the end of the long post-war boom was a greater political acceptance of a neo-liberal policy agenda as a means to compete within increasingly competitive international markets. In consequence, many of the institutions and policies that characterised regulatory regimes of the post-war period were reformed. Measures to deregulate labour markets became widespread: employment protection legislation was weakened to encourage labour market flexibility; full employment policies were abandoned in practice, if not in principle; statutory protections were removed from trade union organisation and activity; and exposure to market pressures extended by means of privatisation and cuts in government subsidies. This policy shift exposed weaknesses in trade union organisation, which trade unionists were slow to address. Furthermore, social democratic parties 'distanced' themselves from trade unions. In combination, these factors threatened trade union embeddedness within national regulatory regimes.The reform of regulatory regimes also impinged on employers' policies towards trade unions. Employers shifted the parameters of bargaining by restricting the