Zinc and Copper Concentrations in Human Preterm Milk

Figueiredo, Carmen Silvia Martimbianco de; Palhares, Durval Batista; Melnikov, Petr; Moura, Aby Jaine da Cruz Montes; Santos, Sandra Christo dos

doi:10.1007/s12011-009-8515-6

Cited by 27 publications

(18 citation statements)

References 29 publications

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“…The mineral content (including trace minerals) of preterm milk is similar to that of term milk, with the following exceptions: calcium is significantly lower in preterm milk than term milk and does not appear to increase over time while copper and zinc content are both higher in preterm milk than term milk and decrease over the time of lactation. 6, 7 …”

Section: Amniotic Fluid “Premature” Human Milk and “Term” Human Milkmentioning

confidence: 99%

Human Milk for the Premature Infant

Underwood

2013

Pediatric Clinics of North America

341

237

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Synopsis Premature infants are a heterogeneous group with widely differing needs for nutrition and immune protection with risk of growth failure, developmental delays, necrotizing enterocolitis, and late-onset sepsis increasing with decreasing gestational age and birth weight. Human milk from women delivering prematurely has more protein and higher levels of many bioactive molecules compared to milk from women delivering at term. Human milk must be fortified for small premature infants to achieve adequate growth. Mother’s own milk improves growth and neurodevelopment and decreases the risk of necrotizing enterocolitis and late-onset sepsis and should therefore be the primary enteral diet of premature infants. Donor milk is a valuable resource for premature infants whose mothers are unable to provide an adequate supply of milk, but presents significant challenges including the need for pasteurization, nutritional and biochemical deficiencies and a limited supply.

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Section: Amniotic Fluid “Premature” Human Milk and “Term” Human Milkmentioning

confidence: 99%

Human Milk for the Premature Infant

Underwood

2013

Pediatric Clinics of North America

341

237

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“…To date, limited data suggest that zinc concentrations in preterm milk may be higher than those of term milk, although this has not been consistently observed. Furthermore, the pattern of declining zinc concentrations in the early postpartum months does not differ between preterm and term human milk [35,36]. Thus, as a premature infant approaches 40 weeks postconceptional age, the decline in milk zinc concentrations will already have been substantial and may well be progressively suboptimal to sustain normal growth.…”

Section: Acquired Zinc Deficiencymentioning

confidence: 99%

Update on Zinc Deficiency and Excess in Clinical Pediatric Practice

Krebs¹

2013

Ann Nutr Metab

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The critical importance of adequate zinc status to human health, including normal growth and development, is indisputable. The high prevalence of zinc deficiency on a global basis and its importance to public health have been well documented through large-scale randomized controlled zinc supplementation trials. Similar evidence in the clinical setting, however, is much less widely available due to the nonspecific features of zinc deficiency and to the lack of sensitive biomarkers to detect zinc deficiency, especially that of a mild degree of severity. The current understanding of zinc homeostasis indicates that the primary determinants of zinc absorption are the amount of zinc ingested and dietary phytate, the latter having a major effect on zinc bioavailability. In normal as well as in many pathologic conditions, the gastrointestinal tract is the major site of zinc losses resulting from secretion of endogenous zinc into the lumen and subsequent excretion in the feces. The amount excreted is dependent on host status, the amount reabsorbed, and sometimes the presence of pathophysiologic conditions, including diarrhea and steatorrhea. Assessment in the clinical setting dictates that the clinician obtain a careful medical and diet history, recognize clinical presentations in which zinc adequacy may be compromised, and link this risk with nonspecific but plausible manifestations of deficiency. Examples discussed in this article include primary zinc deficiency due to dietary inadequacy (older breastfed infants or toddlers without zinc-rich complementary foods); genetically based deficiency (acrodermatitis enteropathica, acquired zinc deficiency of lactogenic origin), and acquired secondary deficiency in low birth weight and prematurity, gastrointestinal and hepatic disease, and cystic fibrosis. Evidence for efficacy of zinc therapy with pharmacologic doses for two conditions, Wilson's disease and viral upper respiratory infections, is also discussed.

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“…Copper and zinc are also higher in the HBM of mothers feeding preterm infants and decrease gradually with lactation, whereas calcium is lower in preterm cases and gradually increases with lactation. 56,57) Most other minerals have comparable levels at preterm and full term. Lactose, which is present in low amounts in colostrum and increases as lactation progresses, is more pronounced in preterm milk.…”

Section: Hbm Components In Prematurity Infantsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Components of human breast milk: from macronutrient to microbiome and microRNA

Kim

2020

Clin Exp Pediatr

174

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Human breast milk (HBM) is essential for the infant’s growth and development right after birth and is an irreplaceable source of nutrition for early human survival. Various infant formulas have many similarities to HBM in many components, but there is no perfect substitute for HBM. Recently, various breast milk components and their roles have been studied according to the development of various analysis techniques. As is already well known, HBM contains about 87%–88% water, and 124- g/L solid components as macronutrients, including about 7% (60–70 g/L) carbohydrates, 1% (8–10 g/L) protein, and 3.8% (35–40 g/L) fat. The composition may vary depending on the environmental factors, including maternal diet. Colostrum is low in fat but high in protein and relatively rich in immuneprotective components. Although HBM contains enough vitamins to ensure normal growth of the infant, vitamins D and K may be insufficient, and the infant may require their supplementation. Growth factors in HBM also serve as various bioactive proteins and peptides on the intestinal tract, vasculature, nervous system, and endocrine system. In the past, HBM of a healthy mother was thought to be sterile. However, several subsequent studies have confirmed the presence of rich and diverse microbial communities in HBM. Some studies suggested that the genera <i>Staphylococcus</i> and <i>Streptococcus</i> may be universally predominant in HBM, but the origin of microbiota still remains controversial. Lastly, milk is the one of most abundant body fluid of microRNAs, which are known to play a role in various functions, such as immunoprotection and developmental programming, through delivering from HBM and absorption by intestinal epithelial cells. In conclusion, HBM is the most important source of nutrition for infants and includes microbiomes and miRNAs for growth, development, and immunity.

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Zinc and Copper Concentrations in Human Preterm Milk

Cited by 27 publications

References 29 publications

Human Milk for the Premature Infant

Human Milk for the Premature Infant

Update on Zinc Deficiency and Excess in Clinical Pediatric Practice

Components of human breast milk: from macronutrient to microbiome and microRNA

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