Summary1. Evidence-based policy requires researchers to provide the answers to ecological questions that are of interest to policy makers. To find out what those questions are in the UK, representatives from 28 organizations involved in policy, together with scientists from 10 academic institutions, were asked to generate a list of questions from their organizations. 2. During a 2-day workshop the initial list of 1003 questions generated from consulting at least 654 policy makers and academics was used as a basis for generating a short list of 100 questions of significant policy relevance. Short-listing was decided on the basis of the preferences of the representatives from the policy-led organizations. 3. The areas covered included most major issues of environmental concern in the UK, including agriculture, marine fisheries, climate change, ecosystem function and land management. 4. The most striking outcome was the preference for general questions rather than narrow ones. The reason is that policy is driven by broad issues rather than specific ones. In contrast, scientists are frequently best equipped to answer specific questions. This means that it may be necessary to extract the underpinning specific question before researchers can proceed. Synthesis and applications.Greater communication between policy makers and scientists is required in order to ensure that applied ecologists are dealing with issues in a way that can feed into policy. It is particularly important that applied ecologists emphasize the generic value of their work wherever possible.

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The transfer of radioactivity to the milk and meat of farm animals is likely be a major exposure pathway of human populations, following an environmental release of radioactivity. The importance of source-dependent bioavailability in determining absorption from the ruminant gastrointestinal tract of the radiologically significant radionuclides (radiocesium, radiostrontium, radioiodine, and plutonium) is reviewed. The requirements for and suitability of in vitro methods of determining bioavailability for absorption of these radionuclides is also assessed. Radiocesium absorption varies over a 50-fold range, depending upon dietary source. Source-dependent bioavailability is therefore an important factor in determining the radiocesium contamination of ruminant-derived food products, and reliable in vitro techniques have been developed to rapidly determine its bioavailability. In contrast, under conditions of adequate calcium intake, the absorption of radiostrontium will not be greatly influenced by the dietary source. Results of in vitro extractions of radiostrontium could be misleading, as they indicate differences in bioavailability that are not observed in the animal. Absorption of radioiodine is complete and independent of source. There is currently a lack of data on plutonium absorption in ruminants. However, on the basis of the limited data available, in vitro incubations provide a measure of the relative bioavailabilities of plutonium from different sources. The applicability of the techniques reviewed to the study of other radionuclides and heavy metals is discussed.