Forkhead box class O family member proteins (FoxOs) are evolutionarily conserved transcription factors for their highly conserved DNA-binding domain. In mammalian species, all the four FoxO members, FoxO1, FoxO3, FoxO4, and FoxO6, are expressed in different organs. In bone, the first three members are extensively expressed and more studied. Bone development, remodeling, and homeostasis are all regulated by multiple cell lineages, including osteoprogenitor cells, chondrocytes, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclast progenitors, osteoclasts, and the intercellular signaling among these bone cells. The disordered FoxOs function in these bone cells contribute to osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, or other bone diseases. Here, we review the current literature of FoxOs for their roles in bone cells, focusing on helping researchers to develop new therapeutic approaches and prevent or treat the related bone diseases.

The primary bone tumor is usually observed in adolescence age group which has been shown to be part of nearly 20% of the sarcomas known today. Giant cell tumor of bone (GCTB) can be benign as well as malignant tumor which exhibits localized dynamism and is usually associated with the end point of a long bone. Giant cell tumor (GCT) involves mononuclear stromal cells which proliferate at a high rate, multinucleated giant cells and stromal cells are equally present in this type of tumor. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) have been confirmed to play a potential role in the development of GCT. Cancer stem cell-based microRNAs have been shown to contribute to a greater extent in giant cell tumor of bone. CSCs and microRNAs present in the tumors specifically are a great concern today which need indepth knowledge as well as advanced techniques to treat the bone cancer effectively. In this review, we attempted to summarize the role played by cancer stem cells involving certain important molecules/factors such as; Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs), miRNAs and signaling mechanism such as; mTOR/PI3K-AKT, towards the formation of giant cell tumor of bone, in order to get an insight regarding various effective strategies and research advancements to obtain adequate knowledge related to CSCs which may help to focus on highly effective treatment procedures for bone tumors.

Cancer is a global health issue that is rising swiftly with younger people and an increased number of patients. The role of human microbiota in the pathophysiology of tumors has been paid more and more attention. Microecologics including prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics are among the best validated/proven resources for the application of microbiological prophylaxis and therapy. There is strong evidence that microecologics have anti-cancer activity and their potential association with cancer is significant. In this review, we will focus on the role of prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics in tumor suppression in maintaining the colon barrier, metabolism, immune regulation, inhibition of host tumor cell proliferation, and epidemiologicalbased recommendations. Besides, other signs illuminate the role of microecological agents to adjunct the cancer treatment and counter the toxic side effects of cancer drugs. In addition, we will explore their role in chemotherapy, where these probiotics can be used as an adjunct to chemotherapy, counteracting the toxic side effects of chemotherapy drugs to minimize or optimize the therapeutic effect. In the treatment of cancer, we can see the role of prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, and their application in cancer patients, and the effectiveness effect can be considered as a clinical benefit. Practical applicationsA large number of studies have shown that microecologics including prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics play an important role in regulating intestinal microecology and contribute to the prevention and treatment of cancer, indicating that prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics have the potential to be used as microecological modulators in the adjuvant therapy of cancer. However, it is not clear what is the anti-tumor mechanism of these microecologics and how they antagonize the side effects of cancer chemotherapy and protect normal cells. This paper reviews the role of prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics in tumor suppression in maintaining the colon barrier, metabolism, immune regulation, and prevention of rapid growth of host cells, as well as their potential role in cancer chemotherapy. This review helps to better understand the relationship between prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics with immune regulation, intestinal microecology, metabolic regulation, and cell proliferation and provides strong evidence for their potential application as microecologics in cancer adjuvant therapy.

Colorectal cancer has been confirmed to be the third most dreadful cancer across the world. The latest reports show that the colorectal cancer is increasing in India at a high rate due to food habits, particularly consuming the foods with high fat content. Chemotherapy has been considered as a potential treatment in the control of a wide range of cancers recently, such as gastrointestinal cancers and so on. The scientists are looking to come up with new drugs to treat cancer by regulating the carcinogenesis with minimal toxicity.Curcumin is a phytochemical extracted from turmeric. It is highly effective product of the rhizomes of Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae). It is also considered as a valuable drug for chemotherapeutic treatments in cancer. In case of animal studies, it has been clearly mentioned that curcumin controls carcinogenesis in various other organs as well as colon. Curcumin exhibits the capability to act as anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory drug as well. It has also been confirmed that the P-gp expression regulation is carried out by curcumin by inhibiting the COX-2 expression. Also, it has been clearly stated that curcumin down-regulates NF-kB pathway in various cell lines like Colo 205 colon cancer cell line etc. Multi Drug Resistance (MDR) plays a key role in case of the cancer cells to exhibit the resistance against the cytotoxicity of various chemotherapeutic drugs. This type of characteristics in cancer cells is developed due to low levels of the chemotherapeutic drug accumulated inside the cells during repeated exposure to the drug, showing the over-expression of P-glycoprotein (MDR-1). P-glycoprotein, a transporter protein, allows the cells to expel the wide range of chemotherapeutic drugs. The latest reports show that COX-2 expression and P-gp expression possess strong correlation with each other.In this research study, we generated the Multi-Drug Resistant HT29 Human colon cancer cells by treating the cells with increasing concentrations of a chemotherapeutic drug namely Doxorubicin Hydrochloride (DOX) and further we estimated the intracellular drug concentration in treated live as well as dead cells with the help of Doxorubicin Accumulation Assay. Also, the cell morphology change was studied in HT29 cells after every 24 hours of the DOX treatment separately as well as curcumin co-treatment (DOX+Curcumin). The curcumin co-treatment was carried out to observe the effect of curcumin on multi-drug resistant HT29 colon cancer cells and further study can be extended to investigate the various inflammatory genes controlled by NFkB at mRNA and protein level as well as the levels of cytokines which may get down-regulated by treatment. This study will help to completely understand the mechanism of reducing the effect of Multidrug Resistance (a unique property of cancer) by curcumin in case of colon cancer.

Colorectal cancer has been confirmed to be the third most dreadful cancer across the world. The latest reports show that the colorectal cancer is increasing in India at a high rate due to food habits, particularly consuming the foods with high fat content. Chemotherapy has been considered as a potential treatment in the control of a wide range of cancers recently, such as gastrointestinal cancers and so on. The scientists are looking to come up with new drugs to treat cancer by regulating the carcinogenesis with minimal toxicity.Curcumin is a phytochemical extracted from turmeric. It is highly effective product of the rhizomes of Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae). It is also considered as a valuable drug for chemotherapeutic treatments in cancer. In case of animal studies, it has been clearly mentioned that curcumin controls carcinogenesis in various other organs as well as colon. Curcumin exhibits the capability to act as anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory drug as well. It has also been confirmed that the P-gp expression regulation is carried out by curcumin by inhibiting the COX-2 expression. Also, it has been clearly stated that curcumin down-regulates NF-kB pathway in various cell lines like Colo 205 colon cancer cell line etc. Multi Drug Resistance (MDR) plays a key role in case of the cancer cells to exhibit the resistance against the cytotoxicity of various chemotherapeutic drugs. This type of characteristics in cancer cells is developed due to low levels of the chemotherapeutic drug accumulated inside the cells during repeated exposure to the drug, showing the over-expression of P-glycoprotein (MDR-1). P-glycoprotein, a transporter protein, allows the cells to expel the wide range of chemotherapeutic drugs. The latest reports show that COX-2 expression and P-gp expression possess strong correlation with each other.In this research study, we generated the Multi-Drug Resistant HT29 Human colon cancer cells by treating the cells with increasing concentrations of a chemotherapeutic drug namely Doxorubicin Hydrochloride (DOX) and further we estimated the intracellular drug concentration in treated live as well as dead cells with the help of Doxorubicin Accumulation Assay. Also, the cell morphology change was studied in HT29 cells after every 24 hours of the DOX treatment separately as well as curcumin co-treatment (DOX+Curcumin). The curcumin co-treatment was carried out to observe the effect of curcumin on multi-drug resistant HT29 colon cancer cells and further study can be extended to investigate the various inflammatory genes controlled by NFkB at mRNA and protein level as well as the levels of cytokines which may get down-regulated by treatment. This study will help to completely understand the mechanism of reducing the effect of Multidrug Resistance (a unique property of cancer) by curcumin in case of colon cancer.