S almonellosis caused by either Salmonella enterica or S. bongori (Popoff, Bockemühl, & Gheesling, 2004; WHO, 2018), is an important zoonotic infection that is common to humans and a wide range of animals (Herikstad, Motarjemi, & Tauxe, 2002). The pathogen comprises a broad pathogenic serovars capable of causing varying levels of illnesses in humans and animals depending on the infecting serotype, age as well as the immune status of the patient (Ala'din, 2004). Salmonella infections is considered one of the major causes of diarrhoeal diseases globally and although most cases are mild and occasionally self-resolving, life-threatening clinical illness is common (Ala' din, 2004). Two of the most common clinical spectrum of the disease are gastroenteritis and typhoid fever. The disease is also considered an important foodborne illness with significant public health ramification (Fluit, 2005). Salmonellosis is considered the most frequent foodborne zoonosis in more developed and less developed countries. It is also associated with many other disease syndromes; including septicaemia, acute and chronic enteritis (Sherrill, 2018). The importance of salmonellosis as a human disease is continuously gaining relevance due to rapid changes in the epidemiological trends and the emergence of strains which are resistant to the commonly used chemotherapeutic agents (Kemal, 2014; Salihu, et al., 2015). The increase in the proportion of outbreaks from consumption of meat and meat products, as well as fresh vegetables has resulted in a proportionately similar increase in the number of human incidents. Food is the most important vehicle that transmits the microorganisms to human (Varnam, 1991), review Article Abstract | Salmonellosis is reported as one of the main cause of diarrhoeal diseases globally. The disease is also associated with enteric fever, including typhoid which is a potentially fatal systemic illness bedeviling many developing countries. The disease is estimated to affect nearly 17 million people with over 150,000 deaths occurring annually. Salmonellosis is also beginning to emerge as a foodborne infection characterized by significant economic and public health hazard with global ramifications. High prevalence of the disease is directly related to poor sanitation and hygiene, consumption and use of unsafe water, overcrowding and social unrest. A significant number of Iraqis are affected annually with a death rate of 10-20 %, mainly resulting from limited access to fresh water and improper sewage disposal into the river bodies. This review provides an overview of Salmonella infection in human and animals, with emphasis on the economic and public health burden of the disease in Iraq.

Public Health expenditure to GDP ratio has remained low in developing countries and general public has no choice but to seek healthcare from their own pocket, which has remained the dominant source of financing. In Pakistan, out of pocket expenditures are around 70% of the total health expenditures. The study analyzed the out of pocket health expenditure patterns of Pakistan historically, across provinces, rural and urban areas. Further it compares between below poverty line and above poverty line households with reference to out of pocket health expenditures to analyze the potential of catastrophic health expenditures pushing marginalized group into a poverty trap. The study found that absolute amount of health expenditure by private households and government are increasing over the time, but the health related spending shares of household incomes are declining, which should be a major policy concern. The study further shows that in rural areas lack of health facilities pushes people to spend more to buy health care privately indicating health services inequality. Finally the lack of health facilities and improper medical facilities may be a significant factor for high disease prevalence rates and health problems in these areas. This further reinforces the people to spend more even for the minimum health care, which if catastrophic can push people into poverty.

The World Health Report 2010 encourages countries to reduce wastage and increase efficiency to achieve Universal Health Coverage (UHC). This research examines the efficiency of divisions (subprovincial geographic units) in Pakistan in moving towards UHC using Data Envelop Analysis. We have used data from the Pakistan National Accounts 2011-12 and the Pakistan Social Living and Measurement Survey 2012-13 to measure per capita pooled public health spending in the divisions as inputs, and a set of UHC indicators (health service coverage and financial protection) as outputs. Sensitivity analysis for factors outside the health sector influencing health outcomes was conducted to refine the main model specification. Spider radar graphs were generated to illustrate differences between divisions with similar public spending but different performances for UHC. Pearson product-moment correlation was used to explore the strength and direction of the associations between proxy health systems organization variables and efficiency scores.The results showed a large variation in performance of divisions for selected UHC outputs. The results of the sensitivity analysis were also similar. Overall, divisions in Sindh province were better performing and divisions in Balochistan province were the least performing. Access to health care, the responsiveness of health systems, and patients' satisfaction were found to be correlated with efficiency scores.This research suggests that progress towards UHC is possible even at relatively low levels of public spending. Given the devolution of health system responsibilities to the provinces, this analysis will be a timely reference for provinces to gauge the performance of their divisions and plan the ongoing reforms to achieve UHC. ARTICLE HISTORY

The study aims to investigate the impact of demographic factors on investment risk tolerance. The demographic variables taken include age, gender, marital status, income, work experience, and education. The primary data has been collected through questionnaires by adopting a deductive approach. The sample size consists of 106 respondents using convenience sampling. SPSS is used for data analysis and person correlation, and linear regression is applied to analyze the relationship between the variables. It was identified that gender, income, and education are positively related to risk tolerance level, whereas age, marital status, and work experience are negatively related to risk tolerance. Gender is found to have a significant positive impact on risk tolerance level, whereas marital status has been found to have a negative and significant relationship with the risk tolerance level of individuals. These findings will be helpful for the investors to improve their investment decision-making skills. The further risk tolerance of investors may depend on the behavioral factors too.

Environmental variables in a malaria geographic information system [GIS] database were analysed to discriminate between governorates at high and low risk of malaria. Only Fayoum governorate was categorized as a high risk area for malaria during the last 2 decades. Discriminant models correctly classified 96.3% of the risk categories and indicated that the most important predictor of risk is hydrogeology. Further GIS spatial analysis indicated that the high malaria risk in Fayoum is associated with a unique environmental envelope of biotic [presence of both efficient malaria vectors] and abiotic [hydrogeology and soil] variables. Recommendations for surveillance and control are discussed.