AMBIGUITY OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCESThe aim of this paper is to account for the ambiguity of interrogative sentences by providing a systematic description of the sources of their diverse interpretations. The discussion uses the concepts and methods of classical logic (with set theory) and draws on the results achieved in Polish semiotics, especially on the accounts of questions inspired by Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz's theory. The method of analyzing the ambiguity of questions proposed in this paper is based on the distinction between what is questioned (the so-called subject of the question) and what is assumed in it (the so-called condition of the question). This method is used to examine the ambiguity of interrogative sentences of various types, as well as to present a way of disambiguating the quantification of interrogatives.
StreszczenieWprowadzenie. Efekt placebo/nocebo odnosi się do działania nieaktywnych farmakologicznie substancji podawanych w postaci recepturalnej (najczęściej tabletki), identycznej z tą, która zawiera substancje lecznicze i może być korzystny, obojętny lub niekorzystny dla chorego. Interdyscyplinarne badania tego efektu wskazują na rolę oczekiwań jako zjawisk psychobiologicznych, wyniki tych badań są istotne także dla etyki lekarskiej. Cel pracy. Sformułowanie ważnych dla praktyki lekarskiej wniosków z wyników badań nad efektem placebo. Skrócony opis stanu wiedzy. Wyniki badań empirycznych potwierdzają pogląd, iż procesy mentalne mogą aktywizować mechanizmy podobne do wywoływanych przez leki. Podsumowanie. Wnioski: 1. Przekazywanie diagnozy i rokowania może powodować konflikt norm szacunku dla autonomii, nieszkodzenia i dobroczynności. 2. Stosowanie zalecanych w etykach zawodowych metod rozwiązywania konfliktów wartości i norm jest utrudnione, gdyż: pojęcie i kryteria dobra pacjenta są niejasne i nieostre; przyjęta przez WHO definicja zdrowia jest, z praktycznego punktu widzenia, za szeroka. 3. Wyniki badań klinicznych nad efektem nocebo, a także psychologicznych nad atrybucjami, potwierdzają, że prawda i norma prawdomówności nie są absolutne, czasem nieprzekazywanie pacjentowi całej prawdy jest usprawiedliwione -uwzględnia się to w postulatach dotyczących procedur informowania pacjenta (wykorzystanie możliwości niepoinformowania). 4. Dobra komunikacja może zmniejszyć negatywne skutki procedur medycznych i przekazywanych informacji -zwłaszcza diagnoz i rokowań skrajnie niekorzystnych. 5. Uwzględnienie efektu nocebo prognozy medycznej przemawia za poszukiwaniem zawodowo i etycznie akceptowalnych zaleceń (ścisłe procedury nie są możliwe) co do przekazywania pacjentom prognoz.
In every-day activities in science and the humanities we very often compare and evaluate hypotheses, theories, and whole disciplines. When people say that, for example, the humanities represent a much lower stage of development than science, or that science contributes almost nothing to solving existential human problems while the humanities are very helpful in this field, they are comparing whole sets of sciences and theories. Comparisons of this kind are made mostly in informal conversation. In print, they are common in reviews.The ways and criteria of differentiating between theories have not been systematically scrutinized. One can evaluate and compare theories with respect to hundreds of attributes (more general, more precise, explanatorily useful. influential, and so forth). There have been some very interesting attempts to put forward a theory of theory comparison but as a rule they are confmed to theories in science and have little in common with comparing of conceptions in the humanities. Even in the case of theories in sciences not all comparisons are taken into account. The inter~st of methodologists is mostly directed at comparing successive theories in the same domain of research. In this restricted field some theories of comparison have been invented (K Popper, I. Lakatos, 1. Laudan, I. Niiniluoto and the structuralists may be mentioned here).We would like the present book to be a kind of contribution to a more general theory of theory comparison, i.e. a theory that goes beyond the realm of mathematics and science. The authors of the essays collected in this volume describe -from a systematic as well as a historical point of view -various conditions, difficulties and ways of comparing and evaluating theories, using different metascientific concepts and views (e.g. the concept of system in the Bertalanffyan sense, the concept of explanatory power, the model of multidimensional social choice, some AI results, and the structuralist view). Hence, the title On Comparing and Evaluating Scientific Theories reflects the general idea of this collection.
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