1. Non-invasive faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) analysis is a well-established tool to quantify stress in captive and free-ranging species. While the method has great potential, its suitability in field studies might be limited when faecal samples from unknown individuals are used. Possible factors affecting final results and thus jeopardizing correct data interpretation are individual and sex-specific variation, storage conditions and uneven distribution of metabolites in the faeces. 2. We tested these factors on a population of free-ranging Alpine chamois Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra in the Austrian Alps. Faecal samples (n = 183) were analysed with an established enzyme immunoassay (EIA). To further validate the assay for FCM in chamois, a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was performed. Sex-specific differences in metabolite excretion were evaluated. Effects of storage length and temperature on FCM were tested with two experiments. The distribution of metabolites in the faeces was determined by the analysis of subsamples of single faecal samples. Potential individual effects on FCM levels and individually variable reactions to stressful events were evaluated with a simulation experiment. 3. Patterns of immunoreactive peaks after HPLC separation were similar for different faecal samples, except in one sample of a male. In the stability tests, storage time at ambient temperature prior to freezing and the individual were the most important variables in modulating FCM. Concentrations within single samples varied significantly between pellets. Analysis of faecal samples collected from June to October showed a highly significant seasonal trend (P < 0Á001) and a considerable variance of FCM levels within the population. Simulations confirmed that individual reactions to stressors in terms of varying gradients and FCM levels can explain the observed FCM patterns. 4. Using FCM to assess adrenocortical function requires measuring extensively metabolized products of glucocorticoids, whose excretion and detection in faeces depend on several environmental, endogenous and methodological factors. In free-ranging wildlife, these factors and the intrinsic individual differences in FCM excretion generate systemic noise and substantially distort final results. Therefore, sampling of unknown individuals inevitably jeopardizes meaningful interpretation of data, if the above named factors are not taken into consideration.

RationaleIn recent years, segmental stable isotope analysis of hair has been a focus of research in animal dietary ecology and migration. To correctly assign tail hair segments to seasons or even Julian dates, information on tail hair growth rates is a key parameter, but is lacking for most species.MethodsWe (a) reviewed the literature on tail hair growth rates in mammals; b) made own measurements of three captive equid species; (c) measured δ2H, δ13C and δ15N values in sequentially cut tail hairs of three sympatric, free-ranging equids from the Mongolian Gobi, using isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS); and (d) collected environmental background data on seasonal variation by measuring δ2H values in precipitation by IRMS and by compiling pasture productivity measured by remote sensing via the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI).ResultsTail hair growth rates showed significant inter- and intra-specific variation making temporal alignment problematic. In the Mongolian Gobi, high seasonal variation of δ2H values in precipitation results in winter lows and summer highs of δ2H values of available water sources. In water-dependent equids, this seasonality is reflected in the isotope signatures of sequentially cut tails hairs.ConclusionsIn regions which are subject to strong seasonal patterns we suggest identifying key isotopes which show strong seasonal variation in the environment and can be expected to be reflected in the animal tissue. The known interval between the maxima and minima of these isotope values can then be used to correctly temporally align the segmental stable isotope signature for each individual animal. © 2015 The Authors. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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Cases of human exposure to veterinary injectable anaesthetics were reviewed following a literature search and completion of an online questionnaire in an attempt to provide an objective approach to the problem. The modified Glasgow Coma Scale was used to rank cases according to their severity. From the cases examined, results showed that intoxication with potent opioids, such as etorphine, carfentanil and thiafentanil, need to be treated with antagonists such as naloxone, nalmefene or naltrexone, and not with antagonists with agonistic properties, such as diprenorphine. With regard to the alpha(2)-agonists xylazine, detomidine, medetomidine and romifidine, no antagonist is currently accredited for human use. Atipamezole, a specific alpha(2)-antagonist, is widely used in veterinary medicine and has been used experimentally to reverse dexmetomidine in a study in human medicine. The high concentrations of alpha(2)-agonists being used in zoo and wildlife medicine warrant the accreditation of atipamezole for use in cases of human exposure. Knowledge and availability of the appropriate antagonist are essential in cases of human intoxication with injectable anaesthetics. Preventive measures, such as wearing gloves and eye protection, need to be used more regularly to reduce the risk of exposure.