Living species, ranging from bacteria to animals, exist in environmental conditions that exhibit spatial and temporal heterogeneity which requires them to adapt. Risk-spreading through spontaneous phenotypic variations is a known concept in ecology, which is used to explain how species may survive when faced with the evolutionary risks associated with temporally

We present a model for lightning shock induced chemistry that can be applied to atmospheres of arbitrary H/C/N/O chemistry, hence for extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. The model couples hydrodynamics and the STAND2015 kinetic gas-phase chemistry. For an exoplanet analogue to the contemporary Earth, our model predicts NO and NO 2 yields in agreement with observation. We predict height-dependent mixing ratios during a storm soon after a lightning shock of NO ≈ 10 −3 at 40 km and NO 2 ≈ 10 −4 below 40 km, with O 3 reduced to trace quantities ( 10 −10 ). For an Earth-like exoplanet with a CO 2 /N 2 dominated atmosphere and with an extremely intense lightning storm over its entire surface, we predict significant changes in the amount of NO, NO 2 , O 3 , H 2 O, H 2 , and predict significant abundance of C 2 N. We find that, for the Early Earth, O 2 is formed in large quantities by lightning but is rapidly processed by the photochemistry, consistent with previous work on lightning. The effect of persistent global lightning storms are predicted to be significant, primarily due to NO 2 , with the largest spectral features present at ∼ 3.4 µm and ∼ 6.2 µm. The features within the transmission spectrum are on the order of 1 ppm and therefore are not likely detectable with JWST. Depending on its spectral properties, C 2 N could be a key tracer for lightning on Earth-like exoplanets with a N 2 /CO 2 bulk atmosphere, unless destroyed by yet unknown chemical reactions.

The disordered network of blood vessels that arises from tumour angiogenesis results in variations in the delivery of oxygen into the tumour tissue. This brings about regions of chronic hypoxia (i.e. sustained low oxygen levels) and regions with alternating phases of low and relatively higher oxygen

The disordered network of blood vessels that arises from tumour angiogenesis results in variations in blood flow which generate fluctuations in the delivery of oxygen into the tumour tissue. This brings about regions of chronic hypoxia (i.e. sustained low oxygen levels) and cycling hypoxia (i.e. al-

No abstract