Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a common, highly contagious equid respiratory disease. Historically, EIV outbreaks have caused high levels of equine illness and economic damage. Outbreaks have occurred worldwide in the past decade. The risk for EIV infection is not limited to equids; dogs, cats, and humans are susceptible. In addition, equids are at risk from infection with avian influenza viruses, which can increase mortality rates. EIV is spread by direct and indirect contact, and recent epizootics also suggest wind-aided aerosol transmission. Increased international transport and commerce in horses, along with difficulties in controlling EIV with vaccination, could lead to emergent EIV strains and potential global spread. We review the history and epidemiology of EIV infections, describe neglected aspects of EIV surveillance, and discuss the potential for novel EIV strains to cause substantial disease burden and subsequent economic distress.

The medical records from 1,847 wild turtle patients seen between 2005 and 2014 by the Turtle Rescue Team at the North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine were analyzed. Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina; n = 947), yellow-bellied sliders (Trachemys scripta scripta; n = 301), cooters ( Pseudemys spp.; n = 235), common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina; n = 165), and eastern painted turtles (Chrysemys picta; n = 93) made up 94.3% of all patients. Patient admissions peaked in May when 25.6% (473/1,847) of all turtles were admitted. Cooters were the most-likely species to be gravid, and the loss of gravid females may put this population at increased risk for decline. The majority of wild turtles presented for anthropogenic causes, primarily vehicular trauma (63.2%; 1,168/1,847), which also had the greatest mortality at 57.8% (675/1,168) of any presenting complaint. Coelomic breach was the presenting injury with greatest risk of dying, increasing the risk of dying by 4.8 times. Other factors that were associated with increased mortality included head injuries, myiasis, and cranial or caudal midline injuries. Of all turtle species, eastern box turtles most commonly presented for nontraumatic conditions including aural abscesses (8.2%; 78/947), upper respiratory infections (6.3%; 60/947), and both conditions concurrently (2.5%; 14/947). While many turtles presented with little to no chance for survival in the wild, 47.6% were eventually released and that number increased to 62.0% released for those that survived 24 hr or longer after presentation. This study adds to the knowledge about the treatment of injured and diseased wild turtles in order to potentially ameliorate the overall impact of humans, especially as a result of vehicular trauma.

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Horses are critically important for Mongolian herders’ livelihoods, providing transportation and food products, and playing important cultural roles. Equine influenza virus (EIV) epizootics have been frequent among Mongolia’s horses, with five occurring since 1970. We sought to estimate the prevalence for EIV infection among horses and Bactrian camels with influenza-like illness between national epizootics. In 2016–2017, active surveillance for EIV was periodically performed in four aimags (provinces). Nasal swabs were collected from 680 horses and 131 camels. Seven of the horse swabs were “positive” for qRT-PCR evidence of influenza A (Ct value ≤ 38). Two more were “suspect positive” (Ct value > 38 and ≤ 40). These nine specimens were collected from four aimags. None of the camel specimens had molecular evidence of infection. Despite serial blind passage in Madin-Darby Canine Kidney cells (MDCK) cells, none of the nine horse specimens yielded an influenza A virus. None of the 131 herder households surveyed had recently vaccinated their horses against EIV. It seems likely that sporadic EIV is enzootic in multiple Mongolian aimags. This finding, the infrequent use of EIV vaccination, periodic prevalence of highly pathogenic avian influenza, and the mixing of domestic and wild equid herds suggest that Mongolia may be a hot spot for novel EIV emergence.