The distance and duration of human spaceflight missions is set to markedly increase over the coming decade as we prepare to send astronauts to Mars. However, the health impact of long-term exposure to cosmic radiation and microgravity is not fully understood. In order to identify the molecular mechanisms underpinning the effects of space travel on human health, we must develop the capacity to monitor changes in gene expression and DNA integrity in space. Here, we report successful implementation of three molecular biology procedures on board the International Space Station (ISS) using a miniaturized thermal cycler system and C. elegans as a model organism: first, DNA extraction–the initial step for any type of DNA analysis; second, reverse transcription of RNA to generate complementary DNA (cDNA); and third, the subsequent semi-quantitative PCR amplification of cDNA to analyze gene expression changes in space. These molecular procedures represent a significant expansion of the budding molecular biology capabilities of the ISS and will permit more complex analyses of space-induced genetic changes during spaceflight missions aboard the ISS and beyond.

<p>The Emirates Mars Mission (EMM) has returned an abundance of whole disk images of Mars at visible wavelengths. Clouds and hazes are evident at the limb of the planet in many of these images, offering an opportunity to determine the vertical distribution of clouds on Mars over the course of a Martian year. However, there are challenges in determining the height of limb clouds due to uncertainty in the location of the Martian surface in the images. This uncertainty comes primarily from small uncertainties in the pointing of the instrument, coupled with the fact that the surface can be difficult to identify in the images due to the opacity of the atmosphere at low altitudes. With a typical pixel spanning roughly 5 km on the limb, the uncertainties in cloud height can be large.</p> <p> </p> <p>Here we present an algorithm for automatically detecting limb clouds and hazes in Emirates eXploration Imager (EXI) observations, while simultaneously detecting the location of the surface. The algorithm considers straight line ‘transects’ through the images that extend from space to the disk of the planet. The inflection point in the recorded intensity along the transect (i.e. from ‘space’ where the intensity is small, to ‘Mars’ where the intensity is large) is used to determine the location of the surface. The transect is also used to infer the presence of detached clouds, as well as surface hazes. The heights and thicknesses of clouds and hazes can be extracted from the transects. We will present the algorithm, as well as a comparison of how the results of the algorithm compare to manual analysis of EXI images. We will highlight where the algorithm does well and where it has difficulty, and how the algorithm might be used to analyze other planetary datasets.</p>

<p>Observations of clouds in planetary atmospheres can provide insight about atmospheric characteristics such as vertical temperature structure and dynamics. Clouds observed at the limb of a planet (from the perspective of the telescope or spacecraft observing them) can be particularly useful tools, in part because their height above the surface can be measured directly.</p> <p>The Emirates Mars Mission (EMM) has been recording visible light images of the Martian disk since early 2021, using the Emirates eXploration Imager (EXI). We present an analysis of limb clouds evident in EXI images taken using its red filter (centered on 635 nm) over the course of a Martian year. We present statistics on their height, thickness, spatial extent, and geographic and local time distribution – as well as correlations between these parameters. We place our results in context with previous work, and explore reasons for observed trends.</p>