Declaration of interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests. Authors' contribution: All the authors had substantial contributions to the conception of the work. Drafting of the work was done by NS and NR; the remaining authors did critical revision. All approved the final draft and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Background: Chronic kidney diseases and end stage renal disease are growing threats worldwide. Tissue engineering is a new hope to surpass the current limitations such as the shortage of donor. To do so, the rst step would be fabrication of an intact decellularized kidney scaffold. In the current study, an automatic decellularization device was developed to perfuse and decellularize male rats' kidneys using both sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and to compare their e cacy in kidney decellularization and post-transplantation angiogenesis.Methods: After anesthesia, kidneys were perfused with either 1% SDS solution for 4 h or 1% SLES solution for 6 h. The decellularized scaffolds were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, periodic acid Schiff, Masson's trichrome, and Alcian blue to determine cell removal and glycogen, collagen and glycosaminoglycan contents, respectively. Moreover, scanning electron microscopy was performed to evaluate the cell removal and preservation of microarchitecture of both SDS and SLES scaffolds. Additionally, DNA quanti cation assay was applied for all groups in order to measure residual DNA in the scaffolds and normal kidney. In order to demonstrate biocompatibility and bioactivity of the decellularized scaffolds two tests were done. The scaffolds were recellularized with the human umbilical cord mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (hUC-MSCs). In addition, the allotransplantation was performed in back muscle and angiogenesis was evaluated.Results: Complete cell removal in both SLES and SDS groups was observed in scanning electron microscopy and DNA quanti cation assays. Moreover, the extracellular matrix architecture of rat kidney in the SLES group was signi cantly preserved better than the SDS group. The hUC-MSCs were successfully migrated from the cell culture plate surface into the SDS and SLES decellularized scaffolds. The formation of blood capillaries and vessels were observed in the kidney allotransplantation in both SLES and SDS decellularized kidneys.Conclusions: We demonstrated that both SLES and SDS could be promising tools in kidney tissue engineering. The better preservation of extracellular matrix than SDS, introduces SLES as the solvent of choice for kidney decellularization.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) originated from different cells of approximately all kinds of organisms, recently got more attention because of their potential in the treatment of diseases and reconstructive medicine. To date, lots of studies have been performed on mammalian-derived vesicles, but little attention has been paid to algae and marine cells as valuable sources of EVs. Proving the promising role of EVs in medicine requires sufficient resources to produce qualified microvesicles. Algae, same as its other sister groups, such as plants, have stem cells and stem cell niches. Previous studies showed the EVs in plants and marine cells. So, this study was set out to talk about algal extracellular vesicles. EVs play a major role in cell-to-cell communication to convey molecules, such as RNA/DNA, metabolites, proteins, and lipids within. The components of EVs depends on the origin of the primitive cells or tissues and the isolation method. Sufficient resources are needed to produce high-quality, stable, and compatible EVs as a drug or drug delivery system. Plant stem cells have great potential as a new controllable resource for the production of EVs. The EVs secreted from stem cells can easily be extracted from the cell culture medium and evaluated for medicinal uses. In this review, the aim is to introduce algae stem cells as well as EVs derived from algal cells. In the following, the production of the EVs¸ the properties of EVs extracted from these sources and their antimicrobial effects will be discussed.