Bacterial biofilms are implicated in a wide range of implant-based and chronic infections. These infections are often associated with adverse therapeutic outcomes, owing to the decreased antibiotic susceptibility of biofilms compared with their planktonic counterparts. This altered biofilm susceptibility has been attributed to multiple factors, including a reduced antibiotic penetration. Although several studies have addressed the role of penetration barrier in biofilm-associated drug resistance, it remains inconclusive. This study was done to elucidate antibiotic penetration through biofilms formed by Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, using an agar disk diffusion assay. Penetration capacity of six antimicrobial drugs from different classes (β-lactams, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, phenicols, fluoroquinolones and glycopeptides) through biofilms formed by standard strains and clinical isolates from catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSI) was elucidated by measuring their growth-inhibition zones in lawn cultures on Mueller-Hinton agar, following diffusion of an antibiotic from an overlying disk through their biofilm to the agar medium. Penetration of only select antimicrobials (vancomycin and chloramphenicol) was hindered through biofilms. There was considerable variation in biofilm-permeating capacity depending upon the genus, strain/CRBSI isolate and antibiotic tested. Furthermore, antibiotics failed to kill the biofilm cells independent of penetration, indicating that other factors contributed substantially to biofilm resistance.

Oxidative stress originates from an elevated intracellular level of free oxygen radicals that cause lipid peroxidation, protein denaturation, DNA hydroxylation, and apoptosis, ultimately impairing cell viability. Antioxidants scavenge free radicals and reduce oxidative stress, which further helps to prevent cellular damage. Medicinal plants, fruits, and spices are the primary sources of antioxidants from time immemorial. In contrast to plants, microorganisms can be used as a source of antioxidants with the advantage of fast growth under controlled conditions. Further, microbe-based antioxidants are nontoxic, noncarcinogenic, and biodegradable as compared to synthetic antioxidants. The present review aims to summarize the current state of the research on the antioxidant activity of microorganisms including actinomycetes, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, microalgae, and yeast, which produce a variety of antioxidant compounds, i.e., carotenoids, polyphenols, vitamins, and sterol, etc. Special emphasis is given to the mechanisms and signaling pathways followed by antioxidants to scavenge Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), especially for those antioxidant compounds that have been scarcely investigated so far.

To estimate the prevalence, to compare the impact of dysmenorrhea on routine life among adolescent girls, to compare the practices and perceptions regarding Dysmenorrhea and to ascertain the reason for difference if any, a cross-sectional study was conducted in urban, rural and slum areas of Chandigarh, India. 300 girls in age group of 11-18 years, who had attained menarche were included in the study. A questionnaire including the Demographic and Family profile, menstrual history, Symptoms of Dysmenorrhea, Effect of pain on daily activities, Faces scale, Practices regarding Dysmenorrhea, Beliefs about menstruation was used. Analysis was done by percentage and chi square prevalance of dysmenorrhea was 61.33%. Sickness absenteeism due to dysmenorrhea was reported in 24.45% girls. Most common symptom experienced by the girls was stomach ache which was experienced by 139 girls; others symptoms experienced during menstruation were backache (107), and general body pain (80). Only 11.63% of the girls ever visited physician due to pain during menstruation. During menstruation only 10 girls use hot water bottle, 71 skip meal. Due to poor knowledge the practices were not optimal for pain management, which affected their school attendance. Formal as well as informal channels of communication, such as mothers and peers, need to be emphasized for the delivery of such information particularly linking instructions on menstrual hygiene to an expanded programme of health education in schools.

Microorganisms including actinomycetes, archaea, bacteria, fungi, yeast, and microalgae are an auspicious source of vital bioactive compounds. In this review, the existing research regarding antimicrobial molecules from microorganisms is summarized. The potential antimicrobial compounds from actinomycetes, particularly Streptomyces spp.; archaea; fungi including endophytic, filamentous, and marine-derived fungi, mushroom; and microalgae are briefly described. Furthermore, this review briefly summarizes bacteriocins, halocins, sulfolobicin, etc., that target multiple-drug resistant pathogens and considers next-generation antibiotics. This review highlights the possibility of using microorganisms as an antimicrobial resource for biotechnological, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical applications. However, more investigations are required to isolate, separate, purify, and characterize these bioactive compounds and transfer these primary drugs into clinically approved antibiotics.

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