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Farmers markets selling locally grown produce were once vital components of urban food systems. In the modern era an extended wholesale supply system has reduced markets to negligible importance in provisioning. Yet the number of farmers markets in the United States has grown dramatically in the past thirty years. Examination of the literature on American farmers markets in the twentieth century reveals cycles of expansion and decline. Four surges in numbers are reported, with the most rapid rise following the passage of Public Law 94-463, the Farmer-to-Consumer Direct Marketing Act of 1976. Between 1970 and 1986, markets in some states increased tenfold, with the national total rising nearly 500 percent by one estimate. Beginning in the late iy80s, farmers markets entered another growth phase, which continues. Research into farmers markets is hindered by the lack of consistency in classification, by incomplete descriptions of market characteristics, and by lost data.

Current theories of astringency propose that this sensation is a result of delubrication in the oral cavity due to precipitation of salivary proteins. Astringency, commonly described as a drying or puckering sensation, is a main driving factor for rejection of certain foods. Previous studies have shown that fat plays a role in moderating astringency in foods. To investigate the role that polyphenols and fat play in astringency perception, we used modified cocoa powders to produce pseudo-cocoa liquor systems that were rated for taste and flavor attributes on generalized Labeled Magnitude Scales by semi-trained consumers. Our results show significant differences among the cocoa liquors, resulting from acetone-water extraction of free polyphenols and fat content variation. No significant differences resulted from training with oil-based vis-à-vis water-based reference solutions. Practical ApplicationsAstringency is a prominent sensation commonly experienced by individuals who consume cocoa and chocolate products. It is of the utmost importance to the cocoa and chocolate industry because consumers typically reject products that are highly astringent. Therefore, study of the perception of astringency and the role that polyphenols and fat play would benefit our understanding of these fat-based products. Training with aqueous-based references, which was easier than oil-based references, yielded equivalent results.