This paper reviews the history and development of forests in Turkey. It considers the published literature and summarises extensive fieldwork in order to present an overview of the forest resource. The issues of landscape change and the associated historic drivers are addressed and the threats to these important and biodiverse landscapes, both now and in the past, are considered. The findings are placed in a wider context, and comparisons with wooded or forest landscapes elsewhere are drawn. It notes the impacts and influences of the transfer of perceptions, management cultures and priorities in approaches and actions from elsewhere. In particular, the contrasting situation in the United Kingdom is discussed with its implications for strategic developments. Suggestions for future priorities and for conservation action are put forward.

This paper summarizes key aspects of 'naturalness concepts' and their relationships to 'close-to-nature silviculture'. For perhaps 20Ϫ30 years, associated with concerns over apparently increasing biological and ecological problems (floods, avalanches, forest die-back, and other calamities) there has been an increasing debate in forestry centered on efforts to bring forest and woodland management back to more 'natural' approaches. Conservation and other management in parallel to these arguments are flawed unless based on sound conceptual foundations, and to this end basic principles and concepts have been developed. 'Naturalness' is one such concept. However, whilst this is an important term in helping to understand the key processes at work it has proved difficult to integrate with ideas of 'close-to-nature silviculture'. This paper explores the issues and proposes more effective integration of approaches. Possible ways in which the concept can aid conservation management of woods and forests are suggested. ZusammenfassungDie vorliegende Arbeit faßt die wichtigsten Aspekte des Konzeptes der "Natürlichkeit" und deren Beziehungen zum "naturnahen Waldbau" zusammen. Seit etwa 30 Jahren werden im Forstwesen unter den Eindruck von scheinbar wachsenden biologischen und ökologischen Problemen (Überschwemmun-gen, Lawinen, Waldsterben und andere Umweltkatastrophen) zunehmend Debatten darüber geführt, wie die Waldnutzung wieder "naturnäher" gestaltet werden könnte. Im Zusammenhang mit diesen Diskussionen wären aber Schutz und Nutzung mangelhaft, wenn diese nicht auf soliden Grundlagen und Konzepten beruhen würden. Solche Grundlagen und Konzepte wurden aber schon entwickelt. "Natürlichkeit" ist ein solches Konzept. Obwohl dieser Begriff wichtig für das Verständnis der Auswirkungen von Schlüsselprozessen wäre, erwies es sich als schwierig, "Natürlichkeit" mit den Ideen des "naturnahen Waldbaues" zu verbinden. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht diesen Problemkreis und schlägt eine wirksamere Einbindung entsprechender Methoden vor. Wege werden aufgezeigt, wie dieses Konzept zur Erhaltung von Gehölzen und Wäldern eingesetzt werden kann.

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As a result of "clean management" systems in forests, many species are lost or reduced to the point of being endangered. This is a broad term which refers to the pursuit of a tidy, system of intensively productive forest in which dead and dying wood, standing and fallen, is rigorously removed or cleansed from the system. This is because foresters believed that such wood harboured diseases and pests. The consequence of such policies applied over decades or in some cases centuries has been a massive depletion of the resource and serious declines of removal of biodiversity. This study assesses the amount of coarse dead wood in oriental beech forests in Turkey. The total volume of dead wood was revealed as 22.87 ± 4.34 m 3 /ha; made up of 3.37 ± 1.41 m 3 /ha (15%) as snag 1 (standing dead wood with dried tips and intact top), 9.87 ± 2.2 m 3 /ha (43%) as snag 2 (standing dead wood with bark loosened and broken top), 4.13 ± 1.9 m 3 /ha (18%) as log 1 (newly fallen dead wood), and 5.51 ± 1.99 m 3 /ha (24%) as log 2 (rotted fallen dead wood). From this research the managed oriental beech stands in Turkey can be described as relatively dead wood-rich. The proportion of the total dead wood volume (%) of oriental beech stands investigated 4.81 ± 4.72 percent of the total living wood volume.There were significant differences (F 14;65 = 4.109***, and SNK -Student-Newman-Keuls-= 3.99) in dead wood volume between the main study areas (min.: 4.46 m 3 /ha; max.: 46.11 m 3 /ha). This was due to the topography and particularly the steep slopes, and the road network infrastructure which influences the situation through local timber production. It is hoped that this study of oriental beech forests, may guide managers in considering dead wood and processes of decomposition in managing forests in Turkey, southeastern Europe, the northern Caucasus, northern Iran and Syria Key words: Dead wood, Fagus orientalis, forest management, log, snag. Resumen Volumen de madera muerta en rodales gestionados de Haya Oriental (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) en TurquíaMuchas especies forestales se pierden o ven reducida su distribución hasta el punto de estar amenazadas, como resultado de sistemas de "gestión limpia" de los sistemas forestales. Este es un término amplio que se refiere a conseguir un sistema de bosques productivos de forma intensiva en los que la madera muerta, tanto en pie como caída, se extrae del sistema. Esto es debido a que los forestales creen que esta madera alberga a plagas y enfermedades. La consecuencia de estas políticas, aplicadas durante décadas o siglos, ha sido una disminución de los recursos y la perdida de biodiversidad. Este estudio evalúa la cantidad de madera muerta en bosques de haya oriental en Turquía. El volumen total extraído fue de 22.87 ± 4.34 m 3 /ha; siendo de 3.37 ± 1.41 m 3 /ha (15%) la madera muerta en pie de árboles puntisecos, 9.87 ± 2.2 m 3 /ha (43%) de madera muerta en pie con corteza desprendida y parte superior rota, , 4.13 ± 1.9 m 3 /ha (18%) de madera muerta caída reciente, y 5.51 ± 1.99 m 3 /...

This study describes the state of coarse dead wood (CDW) in the Forest Reserve and the Managed Forest zones of northern conifer-broadleaved mixed forest. The results showed mean total CDW volumes in the ranges 30,05±11,06 m 3 /ha in the Forest Reserve (6,33±2,98% of the LW volume), and 9,31±2,84 m 3 /ha in the Managed Forest (1,96±0,84% of the LW volume). The total CDW volume was 3,22 times higher in the Forest Reserve than in the Managed Forest.The CDW log1 and CDW snag1 were the most abundant CDW decay classes, whilst CDW log2 and CDW snag2 were the lowest. Comparisons of ratios between the Managed Forest and the Forest Reserve with abundant decay classes CDW log1 and CDW snag1 indicated large differences. The CDW log1 volume was 4,09 times higher, and the CDW snag1 volume was 3,68 times greater in the Forest Reserve than in the Managed Forest. The ratio of different CWD classes in the Managed Forest to CWD classes in the Reserve Forest confirms the pattern. In both Managed and Reserve Forest zones there is balance between total CDW logs and total CDW snags , but the differences between total CDW logs and total CDW snags was not statistically significant. The total CDW volume was significantly dependent on the forest management system. The system influenced amount and diversity of CDW. In commercially managed forest the abundance and structure of CDW retained is a compromise between the needs of timber production and nature conservation.Key words: Coarse woody debris, snag, log, decay classes, forest management. Resumen La cantidad de madera muerta y sus tasas de descomposición asociadas en reservas forestales y bosques manejados en el noroeste de TurquíaEste estudio describe el estado de la madera muerta en la zona de reserva forestal y zonas de bosques manejados de coní-feras del norte de bosques mixtos de frondosas. Los resultados mostraron que la media total de los volúmenes de madera muerta es igual a 30,05 ± 11,06 m 3 / ha en la Reserva Forestal (6,33 ± 2,98% del volumen de madera en pie), y 9,31 ± 2,84 m 3 / ha en los bosques manejados (1,96 ± 0,84% del volumen de LW). El volumen total de madera muerta fue de 3,22 veces mayor en la Reserva Forestal de que en el bosque administrado. Las clases de decaimiento de madera muerta más abundantes eran CDW log1 y CDW snag1 , mientras que CDW log2 y CDW snag2 fueron los menos abundantes. Las comparaciones de las proporciones entre el bosque manejado y la Reserva Forestal con las clases de decaimiento más abundantes (CDW log1 y CDW snag1 ) indican grandes diferencias ente las dos zonas. El volumen CDW log1 fue 4,09 veces mayor, y el volumen CDW snag1 fue 3,68 veces mayor en la Reserva Forestal de que en el bosque manejado. La relación de las diferentes clases de decaimiento entre los bosques manejados y la Reserva Forestal confirma el patrón. En ambos casos, bosque manejado y zonas de reserva forestal, existe un equilibrio entre CDW logs total y CDW snags total, pero las diferencias entre CDW logs total y CDW snags total no fue estadísticamente significati...