A central part of knowing a language is the ability to combine basic linguistic units to form complex representations. While our neurobiological understanding of how words combine into larger structures has significantly advanced in recent years, the combinatory operations that build words themselves remain unknown. Are complex words such as tombstone and starlet built with the same mechanisms that construct phrases from words, such as grey stone or bright star? Here we addressed this with two magnetoencephalography (MEG) experiments, which simultaneously varied demands associated with phrasal composition, and the processing of morphological complexity in compound and suffixed nouns. Replicating previous findings, we show that portions of the left anterior temporal lobe (LATL) are engaged in the combination of modifiers and monomorphemic nouns in phrases (e.g., brown rabbit). As regards compounding, we show that semantically transparent compounds (e.g., tombstone) also engage left anterior temporal cortex, though the spatiotemporal details of this effect differed from phrasal composition. Further, when a phrase was constructed from a modifier and a transparent compound (e.g., granite tombstone), the typical LATL phrasal composition response appeared at a delayed latency, which follows if an initial within-word operation (tomb + stone) must take place before the combination of the compound with the preceding modifier (granite + tombstone). In contrast to compounding, suffixation (i.e., star + let) did not engage the LATL in any consistent way, suggesting a distinct processing route. Finally, our results suggest an intriguing generalization that morpho-orthographic complexity that does not recruit the LATL may block the engagement of the LATL in subsequent phrase building. In sum, our findings offer a detailed spatiotemporal characterization of the lowest level combinatory operations that ultimately feed the composition of full sentences.

TweetNew research finds that over-the-counter (OTC) analgesics influence more than pain. What should policymakers and the public know? This review discusses the small body of scientific research behind the headlines. We explain why researchers began investigating whether OTC pain medications might do more than dull physical sensations and detail the methodologies that researchers used to arrive at their conclusions. We then turn our attention to societal implications and advocate for further research to address important unanswered questions. Key Points OTC Pain MedicationsVarious medications help people manage pain. Many belong to a class of drugs called analgesics. Opioids are typically viewed as the most effective analgesics for severe pain, but they are addictive and require a prescription (Ballantyne, 2017;Ventafridda, Saita, Ripamonti, & De Conno, 1985). In contrast, OTC analgesics are nonaddictive and can be purchased from a wide range of stores without the approval of a physician. Popular OTC analgesics include acetaminophen (paracetamol, Tylenol) and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), aspirin (Bayer), and naproxen (Aleve). As an indicator of how important these drugs are to the public, acetaminophen tops the chart of frequently used OTC and prescription medications. NSAIDs are also high on the list (Kaufman, Kelly, Rosenberg, Anderson, & Mitchell, 2002). AbstractRecent research at the intersection of social psychology and psychopharmacology is raising new questions about some of our favorite over-the-counter (OTC) pain medications. This work suggests that drugs like acetaminophen and ibuprofen might influence how people experience emotional distress, process cognitive discrepancies, and evaluate stimuli in their environment. These studies have the potential to change our understanding of how popular pain medications influence the millions of people who take them. However, this research is still in its infancy. Further studies are necessary to address the robustness of reported findings and fully characterize the psychological effects of these drugs.