Ecological communities are complex entities that can be maintained and structured by niche-based processes such as environmental conditions, and spatial processes such as dispersal. Thus, diversity patterns may be shaped simultaneously at different spatial scales by very distinct processes. Herein we assess whether and how functional, taxonomic, and phylogenetic beta diversities of frog tadpoles are explained by environmental and/or spatial predictors. We implemented a distance–based redundancy analysis to explore variation in components of beta diversity explained by pure environmental and pure spatial predictors, as well as their interactions, at both fine and broad spatial scales. Our results indicated important but complex roles of spatial and environmental predictors in structuring phylogenetic, taxonomic and functional beta diversities. The pure fine-scales spatial fraction was more important in structuring all beta diversity components, especially to functional and taxonomical spatial turnover. Environmental variables such as canopy cover and vegetation structure were important predictors of all components, but especially to functional and taxonomic beta diversity. We emphasize that distinct factors related to environment and space are affecting distinct components of beta diversity in different ways. Although weaker, phylogenetic beta diversity, which is structured more on biogeographical scales, and thus can be represented by spatially structured processes, was more related to broad spatial processes than other components. However, selected fine-scale spatial predictors denoted negative autocorrelation, which may be revealing the existence of differences in unmeasured habitat variables among samples. Although overall important, local environmental-based processes explained better functional and taxonomic beta diversity, as these diversity components carry an important ecological value. We highlight the importance of assessing different components of diversity patterns at different scales by spatially explicit models in order to improve our understanding of community structure and help to unravel the complex nature of biodiversity.

Beta diversity patterns are the outcome of multiple processes operating at different scales. Amphibian assemblages seem to be affected by contemporary climate and dispersal-based processes. However, historical processes involved in present patterns of beta diversity remain poorly understood. We assess and disentangle geomorphological, climatic and spatial drivers of amphibian beta diversity in coastal lowlands of the Atlantic Forest, southeastern Brazil. We tested the hypothesis that geomorphological factors are more important in structuring anuran beta diversity than climatic and spatial factors. We obtained species composition via field survey (N = 766 individuals), museum specimens (N = 9,730) and literature records (N = 4,763). Sampling area was divided in four spatially explicit geomorphological units, representing historical predictors. Climatic descriptors were represented by the first two axis of a Principal Component Analysis. Spatial predictors in different spatial scales were described by Moran Eigenvector Maps. Redundancy Analysis was implemented to partition the explained variation of species composition by geomorphological, climatic and spatial predictors. Moreover, spatial autocorrelation analyses were used to test neutral theory predictions. Beta diversity was spatially structured in broader scales. Shared fraction between climatic and geomorphological variables was an important predictor of species composition (13%), as well as broad scale spatial predictors (13%). However, geomorphological variables alone were the most important predictor of beta diversity (42%). Historical factors related to geomorphology must have played a crucial role in structuring amphibian beta diversity. The complex relationships between geomorphological history and climatic gradients generated by the Serra do Mar Precambrian basements were also important. We highlight the importance of combining spatially explicit historical and contemporary predictors for understanding and disentangling major drivers of beta diversity patterns.

The herpetofauna of São Paulo State, Brazil, can be characterized as the most well-known in the country. However, despite the large number of studies in this area, there are still many sampling gaps within biomes such as the Atlantic Forest that are considered global conservation priorities due to the high rate of endemism and human disturbance. As a result of political and historical pressure, this biome has been reduced to less than 12% of its original extent and, despite its importance for global biodiversity conservation, only a small percentage of its original vegetation cover (1%) has some form of legal protection. This is the case of the Parque Estadual Turístico do Alto Ribeira (PETAR) which, together with the Parque Estadual de Intervales, Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho and Mosaico de Unidades de Conservação de Jacupiranga, forms of an ombrophilous forest continuum of 360 thousand ha in the south of São Paulo State. This study presents a list of amphibians and reptiles from the PETAR, with information on the local distribution and habitat use of the species. The survey was conducted from October to December 2009, completing a total of 15 sampling days using four complementary methods of active sampling: visual encounters, auditory encounters, searches by car and incidental encounters. We recorded a total of 91 species belonging to 53 genera and 24 families. This high diversity can be attributed to the existence of a wide variety of habitats and microhabitats in this region, such as the various aquatic sites used by many species of anuran amphibians. Moreover, the PETAR features a large altitudinal gradient (80 - 1,160 m elevation) that gives a large climatic, geological and hydrological heterogeneity to the area. This inventory is an important contribution to the expansion of knowledge about these assemblages in the Atlantic Forest to the south of Serra de Paranapiacaba mountain range, and provides support for the conservation of these groups in São Paulo State.

Moreover, we provided an update geographic range map and modelled the potential distribution of this species based on the new records, literature, and museum-based data from "Coleção de Anfíbios Célio F. B. Haddad (CFBH)", and "Museu de Zoologia Adão José Cardoso", Universidade Estadual de Campinas (ZUEC). We choose these scientific collections due to their well-organized database with an excellent rate of sampling in the studied area, and due to our logistical constraints to sample other scientific collections. However, we are aware of the records equally relevant from other scientific collections (e.g., MNRJ) and which are absent of our data. On 16 December 2011, around 22:00 h during a fieldwork in a private ownership, at municipality of Itanhaém, southern coast of São Paulo state (24°11′1.9″ S, 46°51′44.2″ W; 20 m a.s.l.), we found three males (mean Chiasmocleis is the most species-rich genera of Microhylidae with 29 assigned species, being widely distributed throughout the Neotropical region (Cruz et al. 1997; Frost 2014). In the South America, Chiasmocleis species are associated with the Amazon Forest, open areas of Brazilian savannas, the Chaco region, including Bolivia and Paraguay, and throughout the Atlantic Forest (Caramaschi and Cruz 1997; Frost 2014). Currently, eleven species of Chiasmocleis are assigned to the Atlantic Forest (Frost 2014), including the central humming frog C. carvalhoi. Chiasmocleis carvalhoi (Figure 1) is a small sized species (SVL 15.0-22.0 mm) and is diagnosed by: hands and feet not webbed, finely marbled belly, and smaller size than other Atlantic Forest Chiasmocleis species (maximum SVL = 18.3 mm in males and 22.5 mm in females; see Cruz et al. 1997) described from municipality of Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro state (Cruz et al. 1997). Chiasmocleis carvalhoi lives on the leaf-litter of lowland Atlantic Forest (up to 40 m above sea level (a.s.l.)), breeding after heavy rains as an explosive breeder (Cruz et al. 1997). Males can be found calling on the edges or floating in the earlyformed temporary ponds inside the forest (Izecksohn and Carvalho-e-Silva 2001; Pimenta and Peixoto 2004; Wogel et al. 2004). Pimenta et al. (2002) provided the first record from Bahia state, northeastern Brazil. Recently, records from Espírito Santo state were provided (Almeida et al. 2011), filling a gap between seemly disjoint populations of this species (Pimenta and Peixoto 2004). The known southward limit of its distribution is the Ubatuba municipality on the northern coast of São Paulo State (Hartmann et al. 2002). Herein, we report new records for Chiasmocleis carvalhoi from southern regions of São Paulo state.

Individuals and species are not randomly distributed in space. Hence, the communities composed by these species also show a spatial organization. Moreover, only few species can occur in many of the available environments. Therefore, the communities present a variation in their composition which can be spatially structured, that is, there are sites more similar each other in terms of species composition than other ones. Robert Whittaker named this phenomenon as the beta component of diversity or, simply, the beta diversity. The understanding of which processes generate and maintain beta diversity is a central question of the community ecology, also helping in the proposing and applying proper ways to its conservation and management. The aims of this study were to describe the anuran beta diversity patterns of coastal plains from southeastern Brazil and assess potential processes which influence such patterns. This study comprises two chapters. In the first one, I described aspects of the anuran beta diversity in the study region and evaluated how these patterns are protected in conservation units. In the second one, I seek to understand how multiple predictors could be related with the variation in species composition, given the theoretical and empirical framework on the influence of such predictors upon anuran diversity. The results of the first chapter showed a clear spatial pattern in the variation of species composition divided in three main areas that are congruent with the geomorphological history of the region. Still, we showed that the actual network of protected areas include similar beta diversity patterns to unprotected areas. However, the representativeness of these conservation units defined as the covered area (~ 4000 km²) is very small (11.3%). The results of the second viii chapter demonstrated the relative importance of distinct predictors, including climate, geomorphological history and spatial scales, to explain the spatial variation of the anuran species composition. The beta diversity is mainly associated with spatial structure of geomorphological units. However, other processes are also important in structuring anuran communities, such as climatic gradients possibly related to the geomorphological structure and the presence of Serra do Mar range and broad scale processes. Our results have practical implications related to the choice xi SUMÁRIO Introdução Geral .