Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurement, performed in the presence of a redox agent, is a convenient method to measure molecular interactions of electrochemically inactive compounds taking place on the electrode surface. High sensitivity of the method, being highly advantageous, can be also associated with nonspecific impedance changes that could be easily mistaken for specific interactions. Therefore, it is necessary to be aware of all possible causes and perform parallel control experiments to rule them out. We present the results obtained during the early stages of aptamer-based sensor development, utilizing a model system of human alpha thrombin interacting with a thiolated DNA aptamer, immobilized on gold electrodes. EIS measurements took place in the presence of iron ferrocyanides. In addition to known method limitations, that is, inability to discriminate between specific and nonspecific binding (both causing impedance increase), we have found other factors leading to nonspecific impedance changes, such as: (i) initial electrode contamination; (ii) repetitive measurements; (iii) additional cyclic voltammetry (CV) or differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) measurements; and (iv) additional incubations in the buffer between measurements, which have never been discussed before. We suggest ways to overcome the method limitations.

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Addressing the challenge of protein biosensing using molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP), we have developed and tested a novel approach to creating sensing conducive polymer films imprinted with a protein substrate, ricin toxin chain A (RTA). Our approach for creating MIP protein sensing films is based on a concept of substrate-guided dopant immobilization with subsequent conducting polymer film formation. In this proof-of-concept work we have tested three macromolecular dopants with strong protein affinity, Ponceau S, Coomassie BB R250 and ι-Carrageenan. The films were formed using sequential interactions of the substrate, dopant and pyrrole, followed by electrochemical polymerization. The films were formed on gold array electrodes allowing for extensive data acquisition. The thickness of the films was optimized to allow for efficient substrate extraction, which was removed by a combination of protease and detergent treatment. The MIP films were tested for substrate rebinding using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The presence of macromolecular dopants was essential for MIP film specificity. Out of three dopants tested, RTA-imprinted polypyrrole films doped with Coomassie BB performed with highest specificity towards detection of RTA with a level of detection (LOD) of 0.1 ng ml(-1).