A new miniaturized frog of the genus Brachycephalus (Anura: Brachycephalidae) is described from Morro Santo Anjo in the municipality of Massaranduba, Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Specimens were collected from the leaf litter between 470 and 540 above sea level. The new species is distinguished from all its congeners by the combination of the following characters: (1) body robust and bufoniform; (2) size snout-vent length 9.9–11.7 mm for males and 10.0–12.9 mm for females; (3) smooth dorsum; (4) general color (in life) orange with white dots and stripe in the middle of the head and along its vertebral column; (5) iris completely black; (6) advertisement call composed of note groups; (7) isolated notes with 1–3 pulses; and (8) short isolated notes (0.002–0.027 s). An estimate of the male density of the new species is also presented. Phylogenetic information indicates that the new species is part of the southernmost clade of Brachycephalus, which includes Brachycephalus fuscolineatus, B. albolineatus, and B. boticario. The severe anthropogenic impacts in and around the type locality indicate that immediate actions should be taken to ensure the long-term preservation of the new species.

Background. Brachycephalus are among the smallest terrestrial vertebrates in the world. The genus encompasses 34 species endemic to the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest, occurring mostly in montane forests, with many species showing microendemic distributions to single mountaintops. It includes diurnal species living in the leaf litter and calling during the day, mainly during the warmer months of the year. The natural history of the vast majority of the species is unknown, such as their advertisement call, which has been described only for seven species of the genus. In the present study, we describe the advertisement call of Brachycephalus albolineatus, a recently described microendemic species from Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Methods. We analyzed 34 advertisement calls from 20 individuals of B. albolineatus, recorded between 5–6 February 2016 in the type locality of the species, Morro Boa Vista, on the border between the municipalities of Jaraguá do Sul and Massaranduba, Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. We collected five individuals as vouchers (they are from the type series of the species). We used the note-centered approach sensu Köhler et al. (2017) to describe the advertisement calls of the species. Results. Brachycephalus albolineatus have a long advertisement call of 40–191 s (mean of 88 s) composed of 7–26 notes (mean of 14 notes) emitted at a rate of 6–13 notes per minute (mean of 9 notes per minute) and at a note dominant frequency of 5–7 kHz (mean of 6 kHz). Advertisement calls are composed of isolated notes and note groups (two notes involved in each particular note group); the former is composed by one to three pulses (mean of 2.0) and the note groups by two or three pulses in each note (mean of 2.7). Most advertisement calls present both isolated notes and note groups, with a few cases showing only the former. Note groups are emitted invariably in the last third of the advertisement call. Most isolated notes escalate their number of pulses along the advertisement call (1 to 2, 1 to 3 or 2 to 3). Note duration of isolated notes varies from 0.002–0.037 s (mean of 0.020 s) and duration of note group vary from 0.360–0.578 s (mean of 0.465 s). Discussion. Individuals increase the complexity of their calls as is proceeds, incorporating note groups and pulses per note. Intra-individual variation analysis also demonstrated that less structured advertisement calls (i.e. with notes with fewer pulses) are not stereotyped. It is possible that isolated notes and note groups could have distinct function, perhaps territorial defense and mating, respectively. We believe that using a note-centered approach facilitates comparisons with calls of congeners, as well as underscores the considerable differences in call structure between species in a single group and among species groups.

BackgroundBrachycephalus are among the smallest terrestrial vertebrates in the world. The genus encompasses 34 species endemic to the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest, occurring mostly in montane forests, with many species showing microendemic distributions to single mountaintops. It includes diurnal species living in the leaf litter and calling during the day, mainly during the warmer months of the year. The natural history of the vast majority of the species is unknown, such as their advertisement call, which has been described only for seven species of the genus. In the present study, we describe the advertisement call of Brachycephalus albolineatus, a recently described microendemic species from Santa Catarina, southern Brazil.MethodsWe analyzed 34 advertisement calls from 20 individuals of B. albolineatus, recorded between 5 and 6 February 2016 in the type locality of the species, Morro Boa Vista, on the border between the municipalities of Jaraguá do Sul and Massaranduba, Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. We collected five individuals as vouchers (they are from the type series of the species). We used the note-centered approach to describe the advertisement calls of the species.ResultsB. albolineatus have a long advertisement call of 40–191 s (mean of 88 s) composed of 8–29 notes (mean of 17 notes) emitted at a rate of 6–18 notes per minute (mean of 11 notes per minute) and at a note dominant frequency of five to seven kHz (mean of six kHz). Advertisement calls are composed of isolated notes and note groups (two notes involved in each particular note group); the former is composed by one to three pulses (mean of 2.0) and the note groups by two or three pulses in each note (mean of 2.7). Most advertisement calls present both isolated notes and note groups, with a few cases showing only the former. Note groups are emitted invariably in the last third of the advertisement call. Most isolated notes escalate their number of pulses along the advertisement call (1–2, 1–3 or 2–3). Note duration of isolated notes varies from 0.002 to 0.037 s (mean of 0.020 s) and duration of note group vary from 0.360 to 0.578 s (mean of 0.465 s).DiscussionIndividuals increase the complexity of their calls as they proceed, incorporating note groups and pulses per note. Intra-individual variation analysis also demonstrated that less structured advertisement calls (i.e., with notes with fewer pulses) are not stereotyped. It is possible that isolated notes and note groups could have distinct functions, perhaps territorial defense and mating, respectively. We argue that using a note-centered approach facilitates comparisons with calls of congeners, as well as underscores the considerable differences in call structure between species in a single group and among species groups.

Miniaturization has evolved repeatedly in frogs in the moist leaf litter environments of rainforests worldwide. Miniaturized frogs are among the world’s smallest vertebrates and exhibit an array of enigmatic features. One area where miniaturization has predictable consequences is the vestibular system, which acts as a gyroscope, providing sensory information about movement and orientation. We investigated the vestibular system of pumpkin toadlets, Brachycephalus (Anura: Brachycephalidae), a clade of miniaturized frogs from Brazil. The semicircular canals of miniaturized frogs are the smallest recorded for adult vertebrates, resulting in low sensitivity to angular acceleration due to insufficient displacement of endolymph. This translates into a lack of postural control during jumping in Brachycephalus and represents a physical constraint resulting from Poiseuille’s law, which governs movement of fluids within tubes.

In a series of papers starting in the early 1980s, Toft proposed a general scenario to explain dietary evolution in leaf litter anurans in which species would “form a continuum from those that specialize on ants and mites, through generalists, to species that avoid ants and mites”, and these differences would in turn correlate with foraging strategies, morphology, and defense mechanisms. In this study, we reassess this hypothesis using a global dataset on the dietary composition of 120 anuran species. Surprisingly, we found that the relative contribution of ants and mites in anuran diets were largely orthogonal to one another. Moreover, we did not find evidence for the continuum of dietary composition envisioned by Toft. These results suggest that, although ants and mites have played a major role in the evolution of aposematic species, the trends found in those species might not be directly extrapolated to all leaf litter anurans.