Purpose We investigated the effect of a 31-d ketogenic diet (KD) on submaximal exercise capacity and efficiency. Methods A randomized, repeated-measures, crossover study was conducted in eight trained male endurance athletes (V˙O2max, 59.4 ± 5.2 mL⋅kg−1⋅min−1). Participants ingested their habitual diet (HD) (13.1 MJ, 43% [4.6 g⋅kg−1⋅d−1] carbohydrate and 38% [1.8 g⋅kg−1⋅d−1] fat) or an isoenergetic KD (13.7 MJ, 4% [0.5 g·kg−1⋅d−1] carbohydrate and 78% [4 g⋅kg−1⋅d−1] fat) from days 0 to 31 (P < 0.001). Participants performed a fasted metabolic test on days −2 and 29 (~25 min) and a run-to-exhaustion trial at 70% V˙O2max on days 0 and 31 following the ingestion of a high-carbohydrate meal (2 g⋅kg−1) or an isoenergetic low-carbohydrate, high-fat meal (<10 g CHO), with carbohydrate (~55 g⋅h−1) or isoenergetic fat (0 g CHO⋅h−1) supplementation during exercise. Results Training loads were similar between trials and V˙O2max was unchanged (all, P > 0.05). The KD impaired exercise efficiency, particularly at >70% V˙O2max, as evidenced by increased energy expenditure and oxygen uptake that could not be explained by shifts in respiratory exchange ratio (RER) (all, P < 0.05). However, exercise efficiency was maintained on a KD when exercising at <60% V˙O2max (all, P > 0.05). Time-to-exhaustion (TTE) was similar for each dietary adaptation (pre-HD, 237 ± 44 vs post-HD, 231 ± 35 min; P = 0.44 and pre-KD, 239 ± 27 vs post-KD, 219 ± 53 min; P = 0.36). Following keto-adaptation, RER >1.0 vs <1.0 at V˙O2max coincided with the preservation and reduction in TTE, respectively. Conclusion A 31-d KD preserved mean submaximal exercise capacity in trained endurance athletes without necessitating acute carbohydrate fuelling strategies. However, there was a greater risk of an endurance decrement at an individual level.

Propolis is a honey-related product with reported health benefits such as improved immunity, lowered blood pressure, treated allergies and skin conditions. A literature review and narrative synthesis were conducted to investigate the evidence on the reported health benefits and future direction of propolis products. Using a predefined search strategy we searched Medline (OvidSP), Embase and Central for quantitative and qualitative studies (1990–2018). Citation, reference, hand searches and expert consultation were also undertaken. Studies of randomised control trials and observational data on humans with health-related outcomes were included. Collected data were entered into NVivo software (Version 12, QRS International) and analysed using a thematic framework and a narrative synthesis of emergent themes. A total of 63 publications were discussed. The majority were cell-based and animal studies, with a few key human trials conducted. There is significant promise for propolis as an effective antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent with particular promise in cardiometabolic health.

Many athletes supplement with antioxidants in the belief this will reduce muscle damage, immune dysfunction and fatigue, and will thus improve performance, while some evidence suggests it impairs training adaptations. Here we review the effect of a range of dietary antioxidants and their effects on sport performance, including vitamin E, quercetin, resveratrol, beetroot juice, other food-derived polyphenols, spirulina and N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Older studies suggest vitamin E improves performance at altitude, with possible harmful effects on sea-level performance. Acute intake of vitamin E is worthy of further consideration, if plasma levels can be elevated sufficiently. Quercetin has a small beneficial effect for exercise of longer duration (>100 min), but it is unclear whether this benefits athletes. Resveratrol benefits trained rodents; more research is needed in athletes. Meta-analysis of beetroot juice studies has revealed that the nitrate component of beetroot juice had a substantial but unclear effect on performance when averaged across athletes, non-athletes and modes of exercise (single dose 1.4 ± 2.0%, double dose 0.5 ± 1.9%). The effect of addition of polyphenols and other components to beetroot juice was trivial but unclear (single dose 0.4 ± 3.2%, double dose -0.5 ± 3.3%). Other food-derived polyphenols indicate a range of performance outcomes from a large improvement to moderate impairment. Limited evidence suggests spirulina enhances endurance performance. Intravenous NAC improved endurance cycling performance and reduced muscle fatigue. On the basis of vitamin E and NAC studies, acute intake of antioxidants is likely to be beneficial. However, chronic intakes of most antioxidants have a harmful effect on performance.

Nonvascularized xenograft rejection is T cell mediated, but is dependent on initial macrophage (Mφ) infiltration. We developed an i.p. transplant model to define the roles of Mφ and T cells in xenograft rejection. Nonobese diabetic or BALB/c mice were injected i.p. with xenogeneic, allogeneic, or syngeneic cells, and the responding cells in subsequent lavages were assessed by flow cytometry and adoptive transfer. Neutrophils and monocytes/elicited Mφ were rapidly recruited in response to xenogeneic pig (PK15 or spleen) cells and, to a significantly lesser extent, allogeneic cells. These innate responses preceded T cell infiltration and occurred in their absence in SCID mice. Syngeneic cells induced negligible neutrophil or Mφ responses. Neutrophils and Mφ induced by xenogeneic cells in SCID mice stimulated T cell recruitment after transfer to immunocompetent mice. T cells in turn were required for Mφ activation and xenogeneic cell rejection. Thus, Mφ harvested from immunocompetent but not SCID mice injected with xenogeneic cells expressed activation markers and rejected xenogeneic cells when transferred into SCID mice. These findings demonstrate the interdependent roles of Mφ and T cells in xenograft rejection. The requirement for Mφ reflects their ability to mount a rapid, local innate response that stimulates T cell recruitment and, having received T cell help, to act as direct effectors of rejection.

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