Highlights This paper uses unique longitudinal data to study learning trajectories through primary school in Pakistan.· Children’s test scores increase by 1.19 standard deviations between Grades 3 and 6, commensurate with gains observed in other countries. These gains reflect learning due to schooling rather than aging: children who dropout from school learn significantly less than those who remain. There is significant variation in how much children learn through primary school: those with the lowest test scores experience the largest gains. We introduce the new concept of `fragile learning’, showing that progression is frequently followed by stagnation or reversals in the data.

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The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.