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BackgroundAquatic biofilms often serve as environmental reservoirs for microorganisms and provide them with a nutrient-rich growth environment under harsh conditions. With regard to Cryptosporidium, biofilms can serve as environmental reservoirs for oocysts, but may also support the growth of additional Cryptosporidium stages.ResultsHere we used confocal laser scanning microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and flow cytometry to identify and describe various Cryptosporidium developmental stages present within aquatic biofilm systems, and to directly compare these to stages produced in cell culture. We also show that Cryptosporidium has the ability to form a parasitophorous vacuole independently, in a host-free biofilm environment, potentially allowing them to complete an extracellular life cycle. Correlative data from confocal and SEM imaging of the same cells confirmed that the observed developmental stages (including trophozoites, meronts, and merozoites) were Cryptosporidium. These microscopy observations were further supported by flow cytometric analyses, where excysted oocyst populations were detected in 1, 3 and 6 day-old Cryptosporidium-exposed biofilms, but not in biofilm-free controls.ConclusionsThese observations not only highlight the risk that aquatic biofilms pose in regards to Cryptosporidium outbreaks from water distribution systems, but further indicate that even simple biofilms are able to stimulate oocyst excystation and support the extracellular multiplication and development of Cryptosporidium within aquatic environments.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12866-014-0281-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Haemorrhagic transformation (HT) of recently ischaemic brain is a feared complication of thrombolytic therapy that may be caused or compounded by ischaemia-induced activation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). The tetracycline antibiotic minocycline inhibits matrix MMPs and reduces macroscopic HT in rodents with stroke treated with tissue plasminogen activator (tPA). The West Australian Intravenous Minocycline and TPA Stroke Study (WAIMATSS) aims to determine the safety and efficacy of adding minocycline to tPA in acute ischaemic stroke. The WAIMATSS is a multicentre, prospective, and randomised pilot study of intravenous minocycline, 200 mg 12 hourly for 5 doses, compared with standard care, in patients with ischaemic stroke treated with intravenous tPA. The primary endpoint is HT diagnosed by brain CT and MRI. Secondary endpoints include clinical outcome measures. Some illustrative cases from the early recruitment phase of this study will be presented, and future perspectives will be discussed.

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