This systematic review investigated the effects of differing energy intakes, macronutrient compositions, and eating patterns of meals consumed after an overnight fast on Diet Induced Thermogenesis (DIT). The initial search identified 2482 records; 26 papers remained once duplicates were removed and inclusion criteria were applied. Studies (n = 27) in the analyses were randomized crossover designs comparing the effects of two or more eating events on DIT. Higher energy intake increased DIT; in a mixed model meta-regression, for every 100 kJ increase in energy intake, DIT increased by 1.1 kJ/h (p < 0.001). Meals with a high protein or carbohydrate content had a higher DIT than high fat, although this effect was not always significant. Meals with medium chain triglycerides had a significantly higher DIT than long chain triglycerides (meta-analysis, p = 0.002). Consuming the same meal as a single bolus eating event compared to multiple small meals or snacks was associated with a significantly higher DIT (meta-analysis, p = 0.02). Unclear or inconsistent findings were found by comparing the consumption of meals quickly or slowly, and palatability was not significantly associated with DIT. These findings indicate that the magnitude of the increase in DIT is influenced by the energy intake, macronutrient composition, and eating pattern of the meal.

Background: Breakfast is often regarded as "the most important meal of the day" but there is limited reporting of the foods/beverages currently constituting a typical breakfast. This study investigated current breakfast habits of Australian men. Methods: Men aged 18-44y were recruited from metropolitan and regional NSW Australia and completed an online survey investigating breakfast consumption habits and other lifestyle parameters including demographic characteristics and waking habits. Results: 112 men participated. Most (83.5%) ate breakfast ≥5 times/week and consumed this meal before 8 am (84.0%). Breakfast for habitual breakfast eaters consisted of one or more of the following foods or beverages eaten ≥5 times/week: breakfast cereal (50.0%), milk for cereal (51.1%), fruit (28.7%), toast (13.8%), spreads (11.7%), yogurt (12.8%), and/or coffee (40.4%). Breakfast may also include the following foods 1-4 times/week: eggs (58.5%), bacon (30.9%), juice (19.1%), and/or tea (17.0%). Conclusion: A majority of Australian men younger than 45 years old were found to eat breakfast most days of the week. Cereal, milk and fruit were the most common foods consumed for breakfast. Breakfast is considered to be an important meal among health professionals and we found a majority of Australian men do eat breakfast regularly. Approximately half of the young men in the study reported consuming cereal and milk for breakfast most of the time, a breakfast option that is linked to higher daily wholegrain, fibre and micro-nutrient intakes.

Obesity affects 27.5% of Australian women. Breakfast cereal consumption has been proposed to be protective against obesity. This study investigated the association of breakfast cereal consumption with the risk of developing obesity (Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥ 30 kg/m2) over 12 years among mid-age participants in the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health (ALSWH). Dietary data were obtained at S3 and obesity incidence at S4–S7. Women were excluded if: dietary data were incomplete, energy intake was <4500 or >20,000 kJ/day, or they reported being overweight or obese at S3. Logistic regressions with discrete time survival analysis investigated the association between breakfast cereal intake and incident obesity and were adjusted for: area of residency, income, smoking, physical activity, hypertension, dietary intakes and a discrete measure of time. There were 308 incident cases of obesity. Any breakfast cereal intake was not associated with incident obesity (Odds Ratio (OR): 0.92; p = 0.68). Oat-based cereal (OR: 0.71; p = 0.01), muesli (OR: 0.57; p = 0.00) and All-Bran (OR: 0.62; p = 0.01) intakes were associated with a significant reduction in obesity risk. Among this cohort, muesli on its own, or as part of oat-based cereals, and All-Bran, were associated with a reduction in obesity. This effect may be due to particular characteristics of these cereal eaters, but the relationship warrants further investigation.

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