The differential formation of excitatory (glutamatergic) and inhibitory (GABAergic) synapses is a critical step for the proper functioning of the brain. Their imbalance may lead to various neurological disorders such as autism, schizophrenia, Tourette syndrome and epilepsy [1][2][3][4] . Synapses are formed through the communication between the appropriate synaptic partners 5-8 . However, the molecular mechanisms that mediate the formation of specific synaptic types are not known. Here we show that two members of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family, FGF22 and FGF7, promote the organization of excitatory and inhibitory presynaptic terminals, respectively, as target-derived presynaptic organizers. FGF22 and FGF7 are expressed by CA3 pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus. The differentiation of excitatory or inhibitory nerve terminals on dendrites of CA3 pyramidal neurons is specifically impaired in mutants lacking FGF22 or FGF7. These presynaptic defects are rescued by postsynaptic expression of the appropriate FGF. FGF22-deficient mice are resistant and FGF7-deficient mice are prone to epileptic seizures, as expected from the alterations in excitatory/inhibitory balance. Differential effects by FGF22 and FGF7 involve both their distinct synaptic localizations and use of different signaling pathways. These results demonstrate that specific FGFs act as target-derived presynaptic organizers and help organize specific presynaptic terminals in the mammalian brain.

Calcium (Ca2+) signaling has essential roles in the development of the nervous system from neural induction to the proliferation, migration, and differentiation of neural cells. Ca2+ signaling pathways are shaped by interactions among metabotropic signaling cascades, intracellular Ca2+ stores, ion channels, and a multitude of downstream effector proteins that activate specific genetic programs. The temporal and spatial dynamics of Ca2+ signals are widely presumed to control the highly diverse yet specific genetic programs that establish the complex structures of the adult nervous system. Progress in the last two decades has led to significant advances in our understanding of the functional architecture of Ca2+ signaling networks involved in neurogenesis. In this review, we assess the literature on the molecular and functional organization of Ca2+ signaling networks in the developing nervous system and its impact on neural induction, gene expression, proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Particular emphasis is placed on the growing evidence for the involvement of store-operated Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels in these processes.

Formation of appropriate synaptic connections is critical for proper functioning of the brain. After initial synaptic differentiation, active synapses are stabilized by neural activity-dependent signals to establish functional synaptic connections. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying activity-dependent synapse maturation remain to be elucidated. Here we show that activity-dependent ectodomain shedding of SIRPα mediates presynaptic maturation. Two target-derived molecules, FGF22 and SIRPα, sequentially organize the glutamatergic presynaptic terminals during the initial synaptic differentiation and synapse maturation stages, respectively, in the mouse hippocampus. SIRPα drives presynaptic maturation in an activity-dependent fashion. Remarkably, neural activity cleaves the extracellular domain of SIRPα, and the shed ectodomain, in turn, promotes the maturation of the presynaptic terminal. This process involves CaM kinase, matrix metalloproteinases, and the presynaptic receptor CD47. Finally, SIRPα-dependent synapse maturation has significant impacts on synaptic function and plasticity. Thus, ectodomain shedding of SIRPα is an activity-dependent trans-synaptic mechanism for the maturation of functional synapses.

Astrocytes are the major glial subtype in the brain and mediate numerous functions ranging from metabolic support to gliotransmitter release through signaling mechanisms controlled by Ca2+. Despite intense interest, the Ca2+ influx pathways in astrocytes remain obscure, hindering mechanistic insights into how Ca2+ signaling is coupled to downstream astrocyte-mediated effector functions. Here, we identified store-operated Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) channels encoded by Orail and STIM1 as a major route of Ca2+ entry for driving sustained and oscillatory Ca2+ signals in astrocytes after stimulation of metabotropic purinergic and protease-activated receptors. Using synaptopHluorin as an optical reporter, we showed that the opening of astrocyte CRAC channels stimulated vesicular exocytosis to mediate the release of gliotransmitters, including ATP. Furthermore, slice electrophysiological recordings showed that activation of astrocytes by protease-activated receptors stimulated interneurons in the CA1 hippocampus to increase inhibitory postsynaptic currents on CA1 pyramidal cells. These results reveal a central role for CRAC channels as regulators of astrocyte Ca2+ signaling, gliotransmitter release, and astrocyte- mediated tonic inhibition of CA1 pyramidal neurons.

SUMMARY Store-operated Orai1 calcium channels function as highly Ca 2+ -selective ion channels and are broadly expressed in many tissues including the central nervous system, but their contributions to cognitive processing are largely unknown. Here, we report that many measures of synaptic, cellular, and behavioral models of learning are markedly attenuated in mice lacking Orai1 in forebrain excitatory neurons. Results with focal glutamate uncaging in hippocampal neurons support an essential role of Orai1 channels in amplifying NMDA-receptor-induced dendritic Ca 2+ transients that drive activity-dependent spine morphogenesis and long-term potentiation at Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses. Consistent with these signaling roles, mice lacking Orai1 in pyramidal neurons (but not interneurons) exhibit striking deficits in working and associative memory tasks. These findings identify Orai1 channels as essential regulators of dendritic spine Ca 2+ signaling, synaptic plasticity, and cognition.