The creation and cultivation of an imaginary companion is considered to be a healthy form of pretend play in early childhood, but there tends to be a less positive view of older children who have them. To test the extent that having an imaginary companion in middle school is associated with positive or negative outcomes, an ethnically diverse sample of 152 middle school children at high risk for developing problem behaviors were interviewed about imaginary companions, coping styles, and problem behaviors. Although having a current imaginary companion (n =13) was associated with using more positive coping strategies, peer nomination data indicated that these children had low social preference with peers. In addition, our data indicated that these children were perceived by their parents as having more problem behaviors compared with young adolescents who never had imaginary companions (n = 108) or children who had imaginary companions in the past (n = 31). However, a longitudinal follow-up at the end of high school indicated that the children who had imaginary companions in middle school showed greater positive adjustment on a multiple-indicator adjustment construct.

This study examines dissociation and posttraumatic symptomatology in a sample of maltreated preschool-age children in foster care. Analyses compared Child Behavior Checklist subscale scores for the foster care sample and a community sample, and also examined differences between maltreatment subtypes. Exposure to any type of maltreatment was associated with greater dissociation and posttraumatic symptomatology in this sample. Preschool-age children with documented sexual abuse displayed high levels of posttraumatic symptoms, whereas children with documented physical abuse tended to use dissociation as a primary coping mechanism. The finding that physically abused children had high levels of dissociation confirms previous research with preschoolers.

The purpose of this research is to explore the dynamics of cortisol regulation in the context of center-based child care by examining the impact of social context (large classroom vs. small group) and relationship quality with caregivers (conflict with mothers and teachers). We extend the research on children's physiologic stress system functioning in center-based child care by focusing on morning cortisol levels among young children living in poverty. While in high-quality center-based child care, children's cortisol levels decreased over the course of the morning-a result that contrasts with findings in previous research with middle-class children, for whom cortisol typically increased over the course of the day while attending center-based child care. Cortisol levels were further reduced when children were moved from a large classroom environment to a small group context. Relationship conflict with mothers and teachers moderated these effects. Children who had high conflict with their mother exhibited cortisol levels that remained higher (decreased less) over the course of the morning, and children who had high conflict with their teacher exhibited cortisol levels that remained higher (decreased less) in response to the small group context. These results indicate that high-quality child care has the potential to support reduced stress among children living in poverty, at least as indicated by adrenocortical activity.

Objective-This study examined levels of dissociation in school-aged foster children who had been maltreated before age 5.Method-Data were collected from 118 children (age in years: M = 9.34, SD = 1.02) and their caregivers. Chi-Square and ANOVA were used to compare foster children (n = 67) to community comparison children (n = 51). Regression analyses examined predictors of dissociation for the foster children.Results-The foster children showed significantly higher levels of dissociation than the control children. Within the foster care group, number of placement transitions, female gender, and maltreatment subtype significantly predicted dissociation. Conclusions-The foster children were more dissociative than the control children. The finding that children who had experienced all types of abuse and who had experienced physical abuse with emotional maltreatment and neglect showed the highest levels of dissociation is consistent with findings from previous research.Practice implications-The findings from this study suggest that maltreated girls and children with specific maltreatment profiles are at increased risk for dissociation. Further, as number of foster placements appears to contribute to dissociation, child welfare professionals should consider this factor during placement transitions.

Children who have experienced interpersonal trauma are at an increased risk of developing dissociation; however, little is known about the prevalence or correlates of dissociation in young children. The current study examined symptoms of dissociation in 140 children (mean age = 51.17 months, range = 36-72 months, SD = 10.31 months; 50.0% male; 45.7% Hispanic) who experienced trauma (e.g., witnessing domestic violence, experiencing abuse). Child dissociation and exposure to traumatic events were assessed using a clinician-administered interview with the biological mother (mean age = 32.02 years, SD = 6.13; 49.3% Hispanic; 25.5% married or cohabitating). Mothers completed measures of maternal dissociation, depression/anxiety, and child behavior problems. At least subclinical dissociation was present for 24.3% of children. Robust regression with least trimmed squares estimation showed that greater maternal dissociation was related to greater child dissociation, adjusting for child internalizing symptoms, number of traumas, and maternal depression/anxiety, B = 0.09, χ(2) = 10.47, p < .001, R(2) Δ = .04. Children who experienced direct victimization did not exhibit a significantly higher level of dissociation compared to children who experienced other traumas, F(1, 138) = 3.76, p = .054, η(2) = .03. These findings highlight the need to assess dissociation in traumatized young children.