Updating information in working memory (WM) is a critical executive function responsible both for continuously replacing outdated information with new relevant data and to suppress or inhibit content that is no longer relevant according to task demands. The goal of the present research is twofold: First, we aimed to study updating development in 548 participants of 4 different age ranges--7-, 11-, and 15-year-olds and young adults--using the updating task devised by R. De Beni and P. Palladino (2004), which allows differentiating maintenance and inhibition processes. Second, we attempted to determine the relation between these processes across development as well as the differentiation among different types of inhibition processes tapped by this task. Results showed that there was an improvement of memory performance with age along with an upgrading of inhibitory efficiency. However, whereas in memory performance, a progressive increase was observed until the age of 15 years followed by stabilization, in inhibition, a continuous progressive increase was observed until young adulthood. Importantly, results showed that development of the different inhibitory mechanisms does not progress equally. All the groups committed more errors related to inefficient suppression mechanisms in WM than errors related to control of long-term memory interference. Principal component analysis showed that updating implies different subprocesses: active maintenance/suppression of information in WM and control of proactive interference. Developmental trajectories showed that the maintenance/suppression of information in the WM component continues to develop far beyond adolescence but that proactive interference control is responsible for variations in updating across development.
Our main objective was to analyse the different contributions of relational verbal reasoning (analogical and class inclusion) and executive functioning to metaphor comprehension across development. We postulated that both relational reasoning and executive functioning should predict individual and developmental differences. However, executive functioning would become increasingly involved when metaphor comprehension is highly demanding, either because of the metaphors’ high difficulty (relatively novel metaphors in the absence of a context) or because of the individual’s special processing difficulties, such as low levels of reading experience or low semantic knowledge. Three groups of participants, 11-year-olds, 15-year-olds and young adults, were assessed in different relational verbal reasoning tasks—analogical and class-inclusion—and in executive functioning tasks—updating information in working memory, inhibition, and shifting. The results revealed clear progress in metaphor comprehension between ages 11 and 15 and between ages 15 and 21. However, the importance of executive function in metaphor comprehension was evident by age 15 and was restricted to updating information in working memory and cognitive inhibition. Participants seemed to use two different strategies to interpret metaphors: relational verbal reasoning and executive functioning. This was clearly shown when comparing the performance of the "more efficient" participants in metaphor interpretation with that of the "less efficient” ones. Whereas in the first case none of the executive variables or those associated with relational verbal reasoning were significantly related to metaphor comprehension, in the latter case, both groups of variables had a clear predictor effect.
Piaget (1968) no concibe el desarrollo como una sucesión de aprendizajes, ni tampoco considera que el desarrollo y el aprendizaje sean dos fuentes distintas y separadas de adquisición de conocimientos. Más bien cree que el aprendizaje está claramente subordinado al nivel de desarrollo del sujeto (p. 176). La escuela de Ginebra no ha investigado el aprendizaje formal, sólo ha dedicado atención al aprendizaje de las estructuras del período de las operaciones concretas. El libro de Inhelder, Sinclair y Bovet (1974) reúne un conjunto de investigaciones sobre este tema de enorme importancia. En nuestro país, Moreno y Sastre (1980) y Sastre y Moreno (1980) han realizado trabajos, que están en esta línea, con resultados muy alentadores.Una vez que ha quedado claro, después de numerosos experimentos, que no todos los sujetos, durante su desarrollo cognitivo, adquieren el conjunto de las estructuras operatorio-formales, se hace necesario investigar la posibilidad de que ello pueda ocurrir mediante métodos que van desde la mera facilitación hasta el aprendizaje propiamente dicho.Una de las cosas que han dejado claras las investigaciones de la escuela de Ginebra sobre el aprendizaje de estructuras cognitivas (y que creemos aplicables al estadio de las operaciones formales) es que la naturaleza de los progresos, así como su importancia, son siempre, de una manera impresionante, función del nivel inicial de desarrollo del sujeto. Otro resultado general es que el curso del aprendizaje, cualquiera que sea la variedad de los procedimientos, sigue siempre las mismas etapas sin saltarse ninguna y tropieza con los mismos obstáculos que los observados en los estudios transversales (Inhelder, Sinclair y Bovet, 1974).Según la escuela de Ginebra, para que el entrenamiento sea efectivo, debe incorporar las leyes del desarrollo cognitivo espontáneo del concepto o esquema objeto de aprendizaje. Si al sujeto se le impone una conexión entre acontecimientos, no se produce progreso. El descubrimiento tiene que ser activo, pues esto es lo que sucede durante el desarrollo cognitivo. Es el Principio Constructivista que pone el énfasis en la actividad del sujeto y en el carácter de autodescubrimiento de toda nueva adquisición intelectual. El individuo tiene que descubrir por sí mismo las inconsistencias entre sus creencias y los resultados reales de sus acciones. Este (auto) descubrimiento es lo que le llevará a progresar intelectualmente de un modo cualitativo. De ahí que Inhelder et al. (1974) opinen que no se debe decir directamente al sujeto si las respuestas son correctas o incorrectas. LA CRITICA DE BRAINERDBrainerd (1978a) considera que la perspectiva piagetiana critica y desecha injustamente otros métodos de aprendizaje por ser «tutoriales» y no efectivos. Por ejemplo, el aprendizaje de reglas, el aprendizaje por observción, el aprendizaje por conformidad o el método que se sirve del conflicto entre las predicciones del aprendiz y el resultado. Para Brainerd, la postura de Piaget de que el desarrollo cognitivo espontáneo es el mejor d...
Retrial System, Ergodicity, Embedded Markov Chain, Markov Regenerative Process, k-Busy Period,
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