In animals establishment of the intestinal microbial ecosystem is influenced by mucosal immune functions. As mucosal immune functions dynamically change during development of juvenile layer chicken, this study focused on dynamics in the ileal microbiota composition in relation to intestinal immune development. In addition, the levels of immunoglobulin (Ig) in serum and amount of bacteria coated with IgA, a hallmark of intestinal immune maturation, were analysed. The composition of the intestinal microbiota transiently changed at the age of 14-42 days compared to the microbiota composition before and after this period. This temporal deviation in microbiota composition was associated to a temporal increase in transcriptional activity of pro-inflammatory cytokine genes. Furthermore, before week two limited amounts of faecal bacteria were bound by IgM and from week two increasing amounts of bacteria were bound by IgA, reaching a maximal level of 70% of IgA-coated bacteria at 6 weeks of age. These data could indicate that prior to achievement of intestinal homeostasis at 6-10 weeks post hatch, activation of inflammatory pathways cause a temporal disturbance of the microbiota composition. This period of imbalance may be essential for adequate immune development and establishment of intestinal homeostasis.

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Shear cell technology is a promising method for the production of meat analogues. Meat analogues are also studied as alternative proteins for dogs and cats, which require high-quality protein. This study monitored the effect of shearing, using shear cell technology, and sterilization (26 min at 125.5 °C) on selected amino acids, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), lysinoalanine, o-phthalaldehyde-reactive lysine, as well as oxidation markers, free thiols, and dityrosine, in soy protein- and pea protein-based meat analogues. These are compared with animal-based pet foods. Processing resulted in modified amino acids, especially cysteine. Reductions in amino acid levels were higher in the soy-based meat analogue, but markers indicated more pronounced oxidation in the pea-based meat analogue. AGEs and lysinoalanine were not formed on shearing, only during sterilization. Despite extensive thermal treatment, the effects of processing on the protein quality of plant-based products were comparable or less than those in animal-based pet food.

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