Mitochondria are implicated in a wide range of functions apart from ATP generation, and, therefore, constitute one of the most important organelles of cell. Since healthy mitochondria are essential for proper cellular functioning and survival, mitochondrial dysfunction may lead to various pathologies. Mitochondria are considered a novel and promising therapeutic target for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of various human diseases including metabolic disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. For mitochondria-targeted therapy, there is a need to develop an effective drug delivery approach, owing to the mitochondrial special bilayer structure through which therapeutic molecules undergo multiple difficulties in reaching the core. In recent years, various nanoformulations have been designed such as polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, inorganic nanoparticles conjugate with mitochondriotropic moieties such as mitochondria-penetrating peptides (MPPs), triphenylphosphonium (TPP), dequalinium (DQA), and mitochondrial protein import machinery for overcoming barriers involved in targeting mitochondria. The current approaches used for mitochondria-targeted drug delivery have provided promising ways to overcome the challenges associated with targeted-drug delivery. Herein, we review the research from past years to the current scenario that has identified mitochondrial dysfunction as a major contributor to the pathophysiology of various diseases. Furthermore, we discuss the recent advancements in mitochondria-targeted drug delivery strategies for the pathologies associated with mitochondrial dysfunction.

Interferons (IFNs) are a family of multi-functional proteins, called cytokines, that are produced by immune cells such as leukocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages, fibroblasts, and epithelial cells. The minute amount of these α-helical glycoproteins, produced by mammalian cells, are firm components of the innate arm of the immune system providing rapid and broad protection against numerous types of invading pathogens. Interferons, from their discovery in the 19th century, have always held out a promise of important clinical utility first as an antiviral agent and more recently holding anti-inflammatory and regenerative effects for treating various neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis, encephalopathies, Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), etc. IFNs elicit anti-viral and anti-inflammatory properties by inducing transcription of multiple IFN stimulated genes (ISG), a response that is partly mediated by Interferon regulatory factors (IRFs). This chapter provides a brief introduction of the interferon system as well as an in-depth assessment of the interferon signature and the various assay procedures for synthesizing non-natural interferon analogs for structural analysis, which may be helpful in designing improved products and act as a diagnostic tool for neurodegenerative disorders.

The constant rise in energy demands, costs, and concerns about global warming has created a demand for new renewable alternative fuels that can be produced sustainably. Lignocellulose biomass can act as an excellent energy source and various value-added compounds like xylitol. In this research study, we have explored the xylose reductase that was obtained from the genome of a thermophilic fungus Thermothelomyces thermophilus while searching for an enzyme to convert xylose to xylitol at higher temperatures. The recombinant thermostable TtXR histidinetagged fusion protein was expressed in Escherichia coli and successfully purified for the first time. Further, it was characterized for its function and novel structure at varying temperatures and pH. The enzyme showed maximal activity at 7.0 pH and favored Dxylose over other pentoses and hexoses. Biophysical approaches such as ultraviolet−visible (UV−visible), fluorescence spectrometry, and far-UV circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy were used to investigate the structural integrity of pure TtXR. This research highlights the potential application of uncharacterized xylose reductase as an alternate source for the effective utilization of lignocellulose in fermentation industries at elevated temperatures. Moreover, this research would give environment-friendly and long-term value-added products, like xylitol, from lignocellulosic feedstock for both scientific and commercial purposes.

Mitochondria and related organelles are ubiquitous among eukaryotes which may have arisen as a consequence of the endosymbiosis of an ancestral α-proteobacterium by an ancestral eukaryote. With the passing of time, different organisms developed different types of strategies to thrive in hypoxic environments and microbial eukaryotes (protists) are no exception as these possess metabolically distinct mitochondria called mitochondrion related organelles (MROs). Among medically and veterinary important parasitic protists, there are a variety of organisms possessing MROs that reside in anaerobic niche in the body. The transformation from aerobic mitochondria to MROs occurred in independent lineages as a consequence of convergent evolution under anaerobic/microaerophilic conditions. Therefore, this review highlights the recent advances of MROs in parasitic protists.