In this study the median radiation dose per stone episode was calculated at 5.3 mSv, with higher doses in those with renal stones and those who required CT scans and other interventions. Monitoring and reduction of radiation exposure is advised for all patients presenting with urolithiasis.

Aim To characterize purinergic signaling in overactive bladder (OAB). Methods Mucosal biopsies were taken by flexible cystoscopy from patients with storage symptoms referred to Urology Departments of collaborating hospitals. Immunohistochemistry (n = 12) and Western blot analysis (n = 28) were used to establish the qualitative and quantitative expression profile of P2Y6 in human mucosa. Participants from the general population provided a mid‐stream urine sample. Bioluminescent assays were used to quantify adenosine triphosphate (ATP; n = 66) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP; n = 60) concentrations, which were normalized to creatinine (Cr) concentration. All participants completed a questionnaire (International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire – Overactive Bladder) to score urinary symptoms of OAB. Results P2Y6 immunoreactivity, more prominent in the urothelium (colocalized with the uroepithelial marker pan‐cytokeratin), was more greatly expressed in OAB compared to age‐ and sex‐matched controls (benign prostatic hyperplasia) without OAB symptoms. Mucosal P2Y6 was positively correlated only with incontinence (P = .009). Both urinary ATP and its hydrolysis product, ADP, an agonist to P2Y6, were positively correlated with total OAB symptom score (P = .010 and P = .042, respectively). Conclusions The positive correlation of P2Y6 only with incontinence may indicate a different phenotype in OAB wet and warrants further investigation. Positive correlations of ATP and ADP with total OAB symptom score demonstrate upregulation in purinergic signaling in OAB; shown previously only in animal models. Further research is required to validate whether purinoceptors are indeed new therapeutic targets for this highly prevalent symptom complex.

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Three-dimensional ultrasonography proved to be more accurate than 2DUS for intrarenal measurements using this in vitro renal model. Three-dimensional ultrasonography has the potential to ease diagnostic renal scanning with the ability to further scrutinize and postprocess the scanned volumes. The model was realistic in its anthropomorphic properties and simulated human tissue during puncture.

We describe the use of polyester resin casting of the pelvi-calyceal (PC) system as a method of evaluating the accuracy of new three-dimensional imaging technology such as ultrasound and computerised tomography. Thirty-eight kidneys from large white pigs were used for the study. We describe the process of preparation of the kidney and polyester resin for injection into the PC systems. The setting process of the resin is an exothermic reaction with an associated change in consistency. The PC systems of the kidneys were injected with resin in a controlled manner and casts obtained by maceration of the kidneys. Some of these kidneys had been distended previously with 11% glycerol and three-dimensional ultrasound reconstructions of their PC systems were compared to resin casts to assess accuracy of the reconstructions. Thirty-eight casts were created out of which 13 were poor. The quality of the casts improved with practice and pelvi-calyceal morphology could be faithfully recreated. Controlled perfusion and watching for signs such as a "turgid feel" of the kidney help avoid pelvi-calyceal disruption. Anatomically accurate casts of the kidney PC system can be created using polyester resin with the technique described. These casts can be a useful research and training tool with urological and radiological applications.