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Paleoclimate reconstructions have enhanced our understanding of how past climates have shaped present‐day biodiversity. We hypothesize that the geographic extent of Pleistocene forest refugia and suitable habitat fluctuated significantly in time during the late Quaternary for chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Using bioclimatic variables representing monthly temperature and precipitation estimates, past human population density data, and an extensive database of georeferenced presence points, we built a model of changing habitat suitability for chimpanzees at fine spatio‐temporal scales dating back to the Last Interglacial (120,000 BP). Our models cover a spatial resolution of 0.0467° (approximately 5.19 km2 grid cells) and a temporal resolution of between 1000 and 4000 years. Using our model, we mapped habitat stability over time using three approaches, comparing our modeled stability estimates to existing knowledge of Afrotropical refugia, as well as contemporary patterns of major keystone tropical food resources used by chimpanzees, figs (Moraceae), and palms (Arecacae). Results show habitat stability congruent with known glacial refugia across Africa, suggesting their extents may have been underestimated for chimpanzees, with potentially up to approximately 60,000 km2 of previously unrecognized glacial refugia. The refugia we highlight coincide with higher species richness for figs and palms. Our results provide spatio‐temporally explicit insights into the role of refugia across the chimpanzee range, forming the empirical foundation for developing and testing hypotheses about behavioral, ecological, and genetic diversity with additional data. This methodology can be applied to other species and geographic areas when sufficient data are available.

73Aim: Modelling African great ape distribution has until now focused on current or past 74 conditions, whilst future scenarios remain scarcely explored. Using an ensemble forecasting 75 approach, we predicted changes in taxon-specific distribution under future scenarios of 76 climate, land-use and human population changes. 77 Location: Sub-Saharan Africa 78 Methods: We compiled occurrence data on African ape populations from the IUCN A.P.E.S. 79 database and extracted relevant human-, climate-and habitat-related predictors representing 80 current and future (2050) conditions to predict taxon-specific distribution under a best-and a 81 worst-case scenario, using ensemble forecasting. Given the large effect on model predictions, 82 we further tested algorithm sensitivity by considering default and non-default modelling 83 options. The latter included interactions between predictors and polynomial terms in 84 correlative algorithms. 85 Results: The future distributions of gorilla and bonobo populations are likely to be directly 86 determined by climate-related variables. In contrast, future chimpanzee distribution is 87 influenced mostly by anthropogenic variables. Both our modelling approaches produced 88 similar model accuracy, although a slight difference in the magnitude of range change was 89 found for Gorilla beringei beringei, G. gorilla diehli, and Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii. On 90 average, a decline of 50% of the geographic range (non-default; or 55% default) is expected 91 under the best scenario if no dispersal occurs (57% non-default or 58% default in worst 92 scenario). However, new areas of suitable habitat are predicted to become available for most 93 taxa if dispersal occurs (81% or 103% best, 93% or 91% worst, non-default and default, 94 respectively), except for G. b. beringei. 95 Main Conclusions: Despite the uncertainty in predicting the precise proportion of suitable 96 habitat by 2050, both modelling approaches predict large range losses for all African apes. 97 Thus, conservation planners urgently need to integrate land-use planning and simultaneously 98 support conservation and climate change mitigation measures at all decision-making levels 99 both in range countries and abroad.100 101

Dispersal is an important life-history trait. In marine meiofauna, and particularly in nematodes, dispersal is generally considered to be mainly passive, i.e. through transport with water currents and bedload transport. Because nematodes have no larval dispersal stage and have a poor swimming ability, their per capita dispersal capacity is expected to be limited. Nevertheless, many marine nematode genera and even species have near-cosmopolitan distributions, and at much smaller spatial scales, can rapidly colonise new habitat patches. Here we demonstrate that certain marine nematodes, like the morphospecies Litoditis marina, can live inside macroalgal structures such as receptacula and–to a lesser extent–floating bladders, which may allow them to raft over large distances with drifting macroalgae. We also demonstrate for the first time that these nematodes can colonize new habitat patches, such as newly deposited macroalgal wrack in the intertidal, not only through seawater but also through air. Our experimental set-up demonstrates that this aerial transport is probably the result of hitchhiking on vectors such as insects, which visit, and move between, the patches of deposited algae. Transport by wind, which has been observed for terrestrial nematodes and freshwater zooplankton, could not be demonstrated. These results can be important for our understanding of both large-scale geographic distribution patterns and of the small-scale colonization dynamics of habitat patches by marine nematodes.

Chimpanzee accumulative stone throwing at trees has been described by Kühl, H.S., Kalan, A.K., Arandjelovic, M., Aubert, F., D'Auvergne, L., Goedmakers, A., Jones, S., Kehoe, L., Regnaut, S., Tickle, A., et al. (2016). Chimpanzee accumulative stone throwing. Sci. Rep. 6: 1–8, but we lack important details about the social and ecological context for this rare behavior. Further observations may enhance future research, as the described observations have not yet been shared in the literature. We analyzed camera trap records from 2010 to 2020 of various research projects conducted in the Boé sector of Gabu Province in south-east Guinea Bissau, West-Africa, to identify ecological and social factors that might potentially influence chimpanzee accumulative stone throwing behavior (on a total of 298 records). From September 2019 until November 2019, we filmed five trees over 48 days to conduct a further exploratory study of this behavior. We discuss the importance of study design when investigating a little-described phenomenon, and the threat posed to chimpanzee populations in West-Africa by the expected expansion of mining activities. More knowledge on chimpanzee accumulative stone throwing is needed as the chimpanzee population is under stress because of increased mining activities in the area. With habitat rapidly being disturbed and destroyed, this population and its rare behavior are increasingly at risk of extermination.